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	<title>DP Chemistry: Shapes and hybridization </title>
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  <meta name="description" content="Two related topics that students seem to find difficult are ‘Shapes of simple molecules and ions” and’ Hybridization’. Shapes of simple molecules and ions is covered using VSEPR theory for 2, 3 and 4 pairs of electrons under sub-topic 4.3 - Covalent structures for Standard Level and extended to include 5 and 6 pairs in 14.1 at Higher Level. In addition shapes for sp, sp2 and sp3 hybridization are covered at Higher...">
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href="../19290/introduction-to-biochemistry--1.html">Introduction to biochemistry  </a></li><li><a href="../19287/proteins-enzymes--1.html">Proteins & enzymes </a></li><li><a href="../19291/lipids-1.html">Lipids</a></li><li><a href="../19299/carbohydrates--1.html">Carbohydrates </a></li><li><a href="../19305/vitamins--1.html">Vitamins   </a></li><li><a href="../19313/biochemistry-the-environment--1.html">Biochemistry & the environment </a></li><li><a href="../19336/proteins-enzymes-ahl--1.html">Proteins & enzymes (AHL)   </a></li><li><a href="../19347/nucleic-acids--1.html">Nucleic acids   </a></li><li><a href="../19361/biological-pigments--1.html">Biological pigments   </a></li><li><a href="../19366/stereochemistry-in-biomolecules-1.html">Stereochemistry in biomolecules</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../19390/option-c--1.html" class="father">Option C </a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../19391/energy-sources-1.html">Energy sources</a></li><li><a href="../19407/fossil-fuels-1.html">Fossil fuels</a></li><li><a href="../19411/nuclear-fusion-nuclear-fission-reactions-1.html">Nuclear fusion & nuclear fission reactions</a></li><li><a href="../19429/solar-energy-1.html">Solar energy</a></li><li><a href="../19437/environmental-impact-global-warming-1.html">Environmental impact - global warming</a></li><li><a href="../19453/electrochemistry-rechargeable-batteries-fuel-cells-1.html">Electrochemistry, rechargeable batteries & fuel cells</a></li><li><a href="../19458/nuclear-fusion-fission-hl--1.html">Nuclear fusion & fission (HL)    </a></li><li><a href="../19470/photovoltaic-cells-and-dsscs-1.html">Photovoltaic cells and DSSCs</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../19078/option-d-1.html" class="father">Option D</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../19079/pharmaceutical-products-drug-action--1.html">Pharmaceutical products & drug action </a></li><li><a href="../19158/aspirin-penicillin--1.html">Aspirin & penicillin  </a></li><li><a href="../19174/opiates-1.html">Opiates</a></li><li><a href="../19184/ph-regulation-of-the-stomach-1.html">pH regulation of the stomach</a></li><li><a href="../19194/antiviral-medications--1.html">Antiviral medications </a></li><li><a href="../19211/environmental-impact-of-some-medications-1.html">Environmental impact of some medications</a></li><li><a href="../19254/taxol-a-chiral-auxiliary-case-study-1.html">Taxol - a chiral auxiliary case study</a></li><li><a href="../19258/nuclear-medicine--1.html">Nuclear medicine  </a></li><li><a href="../19273/drug-detection-analysis--1.html">Drug detection & analysis </a></li></ul></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16592/practical-scheme-of-work-ia--1.html">Practical scheme of work & IA </a><ul class="level-1"><li><a href="../16682/internal-assessment-1.html" class="father">Internal Assessment</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../18892/scaffolding-the-investigation-1.html">&#039;Scaffolding&#039; the investigation</a></li><li><a href="../18896/timing-organisation--1.html">Timing & organisation </a></li><li><a href="../18905/choosing-the-research-question-1.html">Choosing the research question</a></li><li><a href="../18946/personal-engagement-1.html">Personal engagement</a></li><li><a href="../18950/exploration-1.html">Exploration</a></li><li><a href="../18957/analysis-1.html">Analysis</a></li><li><a href="../18965/evaluation-1.html">Evaluation</a></li><li><a href="../18966/communication-1.html">Communication</a></li><li><a href="../19882/internal-standardization-of-the-ia-1.html">Internal standardization of the IA</a></li><li><a href="../19901/submitting-the-samples-for-moderation-2.html">Submitting the samples for moderation</a></li><li><a href="../33754/ten-suggestions-for-ias-using-secondary-data-1.html">Ten suggestions for IAs using secondary data</a></li><li><a href="../37544/gaining-full-marks-for-a-databased-ia--1.html">Gaining full marks for a databased IA </a></li><li><a href="../19506/ia-example-marking-exercise--1.html">IA example & marking exercise </a></li><li><a href="../23929/genuine-examples-of-moderated-ia-reports-1.html">Genuine examples of moderated IA reports</a></li><li><a href="../25234/examples-of-teacher-marked-ia-reports--1.html">Examples of teacher-marked IA reports </a></li><li><a href="../37542/history-of-internal-assessment-1.html">History of Internal Assessment</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16598/mandatory-laboratory-components-1.html" class="father">Mandatory laboratory components</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../16613/formula-of-magnesium-oxide--1.html">Formula of magnesium oxide </a></li><li><a href="../16612/determining-the-mr-of-an-unknown-gas-1.html">Determining the <i>M</i><sub>r</sub> of an unknown gas</a></li><li><a href="../16615/acid-base-titrations--1.html">Acid-base titrations </a></li><li><a href="../16616/a-green-acid-base-practical-1.html">A green acid-base practical</a></li><li><a href="../16617/analysis-of-aspirin-tablets-1.html">Analysis of aspirin tablets</a></li><li><a href="../16618/caco3-in-egg-shells-1.html">CaCO<sub>3</sub> in egg shells</a></li><li><a href="../16644/enthalpy-changes-1.html">Enthalpy changes</a></li><li><a href="../16631/reaction-rates-1.html">Reaction rates</a></li><li><a href="../16635/rate-dependent-factors-1.html">Rate-dependent factors</a></li><li><a href="../16636/determining-ea-for-a-reaction-1.html">Determining <i>E</i><sub>a</sub> for a reaction</a></li><li><a href="../16637/iodination-of-propanone-1.html">Iodination of propanone</a></li><li><a href="../18144/titrations-with-a-ph-meter-1.html">Titrations with a pH meter</a></li><li><a href="../18355/redox-titration-with-kmno4--1.html">Redox titration with KMnO<sub>4</sub> </a></li><li><a href="../16640/voltaic-cells-1.html">Voltaic cells</a></li><li><a href="../16659/3-d-molecular-modelling--1.html">3-D molecular modelling </a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../17168/other-good-practicals-1.html" class="father">Other good practicals</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../17196/common-chemical-reactions-1.html">Common chemical reactions</a></li><li><a href="../227/elements-oxides-of-the-third-period--1.html">Elements & oxides of the third period </a></li><li><a href="../17239/the-halogens-1.html">The halogens</a></li><li><a href="../17162/boiling-points-of-mixtures-1.html">Boiling points of mixtures</a></li><li><a href="../17170/polarity-of-molecules-1.html">Polarity of molecules</a></li><li><a href="../18083/le-chateliers-principle--1.html">Le Chatelier&#039;s principle </a></li><li><a href="../19582/determining-kc-for-an-esterification-reaction-1.html">Determining <i>K</i><sub>c</sub> for an esterification reaction</a></li><li><a href="../18164/redox-reactions-of-vanadium--1.html">Redox reactions of vanadium </a></li><li><a href="../18351/chlorine-in-swimming-pools--1.html">Chlorine in swimming pools </a></li><li><a href="../18178/analysis-of-cuii-ions-in-solution--1.html">Analysis of Cu(II) ions in solution </a></li><li><a href="../18179/percentage-of-copper-in-brass-1.html">Percentage of copper in brass</a></li><li><a href="../18356/electrolytic-cells--1.html">Electrolytic cells </a></li><li><a href="../18598/reactions-of-organic-compounds-1.html">Reactions of organic compounds</a></li><li><a href="../18752/hydrolysis-of-halogenoalkanes-1.html">Hydrolysis of halogenoalkanes</a></li><li><a href="../18784/preparation-of-13-dinitrobenzene--1.html">Preparation of 1,3-dinitrobenzene </a></li><li><a href="../19022/determination-of-an-organic-structure-1.html">Determination of an organic structure</a></li><li><a href="../19887/preparation-of-nylon-66-1.html">Preparation of nylon 6,6</a></li><li><a href="../19343/determination-of-vitamin-c-content--1.html">Determination of vitamin C content </a></li><li><a href="../19342/hydrolysis-of-starch--1.html">Hydrolysis of starch </a></li><li><a href="../19159/preparation-purification-of-aspirin--1.html">Preparation & purification of aspirin </a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../18851/ict-in-practical-work-1.html" class="father">ICT in practical work</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../18852/data-logging--1.html">Data logging </a></li><li><a href="../18853/software-for-graph-plotting--1.html">Software for graph plotting </a></li><li><a href="../18854/spreadsheets-for-data-processing--1.html">Spreadsheets for data processing </a></li><li><a href="../18855/databases-1.html">Databases</a></li><li><a href="../18856/computer-modelling-simulations--1.html">Computer modelling & simulations </a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16594/group-4-project-1.html" class="father">Group 4 Project</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../16595/practicalities-1.html">Practicalities</a></li><li><a href="../16596/reflective-statement--2.html">Reflective statement </a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16666/a-new-laboratory-1.html">A new laboratory?</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16284/exams-1.html">Exams</a><ul class="level-1"><li><a href="../16286/essential-facts-1.html" class="father">Essential Facts</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../16287/objectives-command-terms-1.html">Objectives & command terms</a></li><li><a href="../16288/grade-descriptors-1.html">Grade descriptors</a></li><li><a href="../16289/grade-boundaries-1.html">Grade boundaries</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16302/paper-1-multiple-choice-1.html" class="father">Paper 1 (Multiple Choice)</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../16303/advice-to-students-paper-1-1.html">Advice to students (Paper 1)</a></li><li><a href="../31515/practice-paper-1-exams-1.html">Practice Paper 1 exams</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16305/paper-2-1.html" class="father">Paper 2</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../16306/advice-to-students-paper-2-1.html">Advice to students (Paper 2)</a></li><li><a href="../16307/areas-of-difficulty-1.html">Areas of difficulty</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16313/paper-3--1.html" class="father">Paper 3 </a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../16314/advice-to-students-paper-3-1.html">Advice to students (Paper 3)</a></li><li><a href="../16342/data-response-questions-1.html">Data response questions</a></li><li><a href="../20054/experimental-work-questions-1.html">Experimental work questions</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16324/the-examination-process-1.html" class="father">The examination process</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../16316/setting-the-exam-papers-1.html">Setting the exam papers</a></li><li><a href="../16317/predicted-grades-1.html">Predicted grades</a></li><li><a href="../16318/marking-the-papers-1.html">Marking the papers</a></li><li><a href="../16319/commenting-on-the-exams-1.html">Commenting on the exams</a></li><li><a href="../16320/grade-awarding-1.html">Grade Awarding</a></li><li><a href="../16321/enquiry-upon-results-1.html">Enquiry upon results</a></li><li><a href="../16322/chief-examiners-report-1.html">Chief Examiner&#039;s report</a></li><li><a href="../16323/retaking-the-exam-1.html">Retaking the exam</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16325/faqs-1.html">FAQs</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../3147/ib-core-1.html">IB Core</a><ul class="level-1"><li><a href="../3149/learner-profile-1.html">Learner Profile</a></li><li><a href="../21735/extended-essays--1.html" class="father">Extended Essays </a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../21736/overview--1.html">Overview </a></li><li><a href="../21780/responsibilities-1.html">Responsibilities</a></li><li><a href="../21790/resources-1.html">Resources</a></li><li><a href="../21800/research-1.html">Research</a></li><li><a href="../21804/writing-the-essay-1.html">Writing the essay</a></li><li><a href="../21810/assessment-1.html">Assessment</a></li><li><a href="../22434/summary-of-advice--1.html">Summary of advice </a></li><li><a href="../25272/faqs--1.html">FAQs </a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../307/theory-of-knowledge-tok-1.html" class="father">Theory of Knowledge (TOK)</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../41171/the-12-tok-concepts-1.html">The 12 TOK concepts</a></li><li><a href="../3507/why-tok-chemistry-1.html">Why TOK & Chemistry?</a></li><li><a href="../3505/a-modern-paradigm-1.html">A modern paradigm</a></li></ul></li></ul></li><li><a href="../17783/fast-track-to-tests-questions-1.html">Fast track to tests & questions</a><ul class="level-1"><li><a href="../17784/sl-multiple-choice-tests-on-individual-topics-1.html">SL Multiple choice tests on individual topics</a></li><li><a href="../24351/sl-multiple-choice-quizzes-on-sub-topics-1.html">SL Multiple choice &#039;quizzes&#039; on sub-topics</a></li><li><a href="../31519/sl-practice-paper-1-exams-1.html">SL Practice Paper 1 exams</a></li><li><a href="../17786/sl-questions-on-each-sub-topic-1.html">SL Questions on each sub-topic</a></li><li><a href="../20431/sl-paper-3-section-a-questions-1.html">SL Paper 3 Section A questions</a></li><li><a href="../17792/sl-questions-on-the-options-1.html">SL Questions on the options</a></li><li><a href="../24897/sl-quizzes-on-option-sub-topics--1.html">SL Quizzes on option sub-topics </a></li><li><a href="../17785/hl-multiple-choice-tests-on-individual-topics-1.html">HL Multiple choice tests on individual topics</a></li><li><a href="../24352/hl-multiple-choice-quizzes-on-sub-topics-1.html">HL Multiple choice &#039;quizzes&#039; on sub-topics</a></li><li><a href="../31520/hl-practice-paper-1-exams--1.html">HL Practice Paper 1 exams </a></li><li><a href="../17787/hl-questions-on-each-sub-topic--1.html">HL Questions on each sub-topic </a></li><li><a href="../20428/hl-paper-3-section-a-questions-1.html">HL Paper 3 Section A questions</a></li><li><a href="../17793/hl-questions-on-the-options-1.html">HL Questions on the options</a></li><li><a href="../24973/hl-quizzes-on-option-sub-topics-1.html">HL Quizzes on option sub-topics</a></li><li><a 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</div><section id="main-content"><h1>Background</h1><p>Two related topics that students seem to find difficult are &lsquo;Shapes of simple molecules and ions&rdquo; and&rsquo; Hybridization&rsquo;. Shapes of simple molecules and ions is covered using VSEPR theory for 2, 3 and 4 pairs of electrons under sub-topic 4.3 - Covalent structures for Standard Level and extended to include 5 and 6 pairs in 14.1 at Higher Level. In addition shapes for sp, sp<sup>2</sup> and sp<sup>3</sup> hybridization are covered at Higher Level in 14.2. Because of the difficulty that students have with shapes of molecules and simple ions in exams I have addressed this on a separate page on <a href="../16311/vsepr.html" title="New 2014 programme (First exams 2016) » Exams » Paper 2 » Areas of difficulty » VSEPR">VSEPR</a> <a href="chemistry/areas-of-difficulty/vsepr.htm"> </a>which analyses the causes of this problem with suggestions as to how to overcome them.</p>Typical questions for the core (SL and HL) include multiple choice questions such as:&nbsp;<div class="box"><p style="margin-left: 80px;">What is the shape of PCl<sub>3</sub>?</p><p style="margin-left: 80px;"><strong>A.</strong> Trigonal planar<br><strong>B.</strong> Trigonal pyramid<br><strong>C.</strong> Tetrahedral<br><strong>D.</strong> V-shaped (bent)</p></div><div>or questions involving bond angles such as:</div><div class="box"><p style="margin-left: 80px;">Which of the molecules below have a bond angle of 109.5<sup>o</sup> or less?</p><p style="margin-left: 80px;"><strong>I.</strong> NH<sub>3</sub></p><p style="margin-left: 80px;"><strong>II.</strong> CO<sub>2</sub></p><p style="margin-left: 80px;"><strong>III.</strong> CHCl<sub>3</sub></p><p style="margin-left: 80px;"><strong>A.</strong> <strong>I </strong>and <strong>II</strong><br><strong>B.</strong> <strong>I</strong> and <strong>III</strong><br><strong>C</strong>. <strong>II</strong> and <strong>III</strong><br><strong>D.</strong> <strong>I</strong>, <strong>II</strong> and <strong>III</strong></p></div>Typical HL questions on hybridization include recognising the type of hybridization exhibited by different carbon atoms within the same molecule. For example:<div class="box"><p style="margin-left: 80px;">Which types of hybridization are shown by the carbon atoms in CH<sub>2</sub>=CH-CH<sub>3</sub>?</p><p style="margin-left: 80px;"><strong>I.</strong> sp</p><p style="margin-left: 80px;"><strong>II.</strong> sp<sup>2</sup></p><p style="margin-left: 80px;"><strong>III.</strong> sp<sup>3</sup></p><p style="margin-left: 80px;"><strong>A.</strong> <strong>I</strong> and <strong>II</strong><br><strong>B. I </strong>and <strong>III</strong><br><strong>C.</strong> <strong>II</strong> and <strong>III</strong><br><strong>D.</strong> <strong>I</strong>, <strong>II</strong> and <strong>III</strong></p></div><hr class="hidden"><p>The problem with all of these questions and the many other similar ones each year is that they are rather dry and abstract. It can help students to understand shapes, bond angles and hybridization if they can see the importance of them in a concrete example they can relate to.</p><hr class="hidden"><div class="blueBg"><h3>Example 1. How does penicillin kill bacteria?</h3><p>In Section 37 of the data booklet the general structure of penicillins is given. You can either just use the general structure given or encourage students to search on the Internet to find the structures of specific penicillins. The first penicillin used was Penicillin G. The structure of Dicloxacillin, a penicillin used now, is:</p><p style="text-align: center"><img alt="" class="noborder" height="431" src="../../../ib/chemistry/images/Dicloxacillin.png" style="width: 317px; height: 202px" width="625"></p><p style="text-align: center"><span style="color: #0000cd">Dicloxacillin</span></p><p style="text-align: center"></p><p><span style="color: #000">Both Penicillin G and Dicloxacillin contain a phenyl group (benzene ring). By using either the shapes of alkenes (three bonding pairs) for Standard Level (or the sp<sup>2</sup> hybridization of the C atoms in benzene at Higher Level) students should be able to see that the expected bond angle of 120<sup>o</sup> accounts for the regular hexagonal ring of the phenyl group. The phenyl group is quite stable and is part of the R- group &ndash; i.e. it is not an integral part of what makes penicillin a good antibiotic. What is much more interesting is the four-membered ring containing the N atom. This is known as the beta-lactam ring and is present in all penicillins. Ask students to predict the bond angles for the three C atoms and the N atom in the ring. The C atom with the double bond to the O atom should be 120<sup>o</sup> and the other two carbon atoms and the N atom should all be 109.5<sup>o</sup>. Higher Level students should be asked to identify the types of hybridization on each of the atoms &ndash; three of them will be sp<sup>3</sup> and the remaining C atom will be sp<sup>2</sup><sup> </sup>which will lead to the same bond angle predictions of 109.5<sup>o</sup> and 120<sup>o</sup>. However because there are only four atoms making up the ring the actual bond angles must all be close to 90<sup>o</sup>. This means that the ring is &lsquo;strained&rsquo; so that the bonds are weaker and will break easily. This is the clue as to how penicillin works. The beta-lactam ring breaks and the resulting two parts (which resemble the structures of the amino acids cysteine and valine) can become covalently bonded to the enzyme that synthesizes the cell walls of a bacterium. This blocks its action so that the bacterium eventually dies. It might be worth mentioning that some bacteria have developed resistance by producing an enzyme called penicillinase which breaks down penicillin. Changing the R- group but retaining the beta-lactam group results in new structures of penicillin which are resistant to penicillinase and hence are effective antibiotics. However some bacteria (&lsquo;super bugs&rsquo;) such as MRSA are now virtually resistant to all forms of penicillin. </span></p><hr class="hidden"><h3>Example 2. Relating 2-D data book structures to 3-D models</h3><p>Get students to discuss the bond angles (and hybridization if they are Higher Level) for some of the relatively simple molecules and then get them to see if their answers match up with the 3-D models. A good example is paracetamol (acetaminophen).</p><p style="text-align: center;"><img alt="" class="noborder" src="../../../ib/chemistry/images/2014%20Basic%20information/paracetamol-skeletal.svg.png" style="width: 200px; height: 107px;"><br>2-D structure of paracetamol</p><p>Students should be able to deduce that the phenyl group is flat, the bond angle between the phenyl group and the hydrogen atom of the phenol oxygen atom should be about 105<sup>o</sup>, the H to N to C bond angle should be about 107<sup>o</sup> and the carbonyl bond angle 120<sup>o</sup>. All the carbon atoms are sp<sup>2</sup> hybridized except the methyl carbon atom on the -CH<sub>3</sub> group which is sp<sup>3</sup> hybridized. The nitrogen and oxygen atoms will also both be sp<sup>3</sup> hybridized.</p><p>In many ways these deductions appear easier to make when the 3-D model is used:</p><p style="text-align: center;"><img alt="" class="noborder" src="../../../ib/chemistry/images/2014%20Basic%20information/paracetamol.png" style="width: 300px; height: 218px;"><br>3-D model of paracetamol</p></div></section></article><section id="media-extras"><div class="page-actions no-print navbar inline hidden-desktop"><div class="navbar-inner"><ul class="nav"><li><a class="presentation" href="#" onclick="return false;"><i class="fa fa-desktop"></i></a></li><li><a class="print-section-blog" href="#" onclick="return false;"><i class="fa fa-print"></i></a></li><li><a class="page-bookmarker" data-ticket="IB Docs (2) Team" data-pid="17378" href="#" onclick="return false;"><i class="fa fa-star"></i></a></li><li><a class="personal-notes" href="#" onclick="return false;"><i class="fa fa-file-text"></i></a></li><li><a class="" data-toggle="modal" href="#modal-feedback" onclick="return false;"><i class="fa fa-envelope-o"></i></a></li><li class="dropdown"><a class="dropdown-toggle" data-toggle="dropdown" data-target="#" href="#"><i class="fa fa-share-alt"></i></a><ul class="dropdown-menu" role="menu"><li><a class="" target="_blank" title="Share on Twitter" href="https://twitter.com/share?text=%22Shapes+and+hybridization+%22+-+via+%40InThinker+%23chemistry%0A&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thinkib.net%2Fchemistry%2Fpage%2F17378%2Fshapes-and-hybridization-"><i class="fa fa-twitter-square"></i><span>Twitter</span></a></li><li><a class="" target="_blank" title="Share on Facebook" href="https://www.facebook.com/sharer.php?u=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thinkib.net%2Fchemistry%2Fpage%2F17378%2Fshapes-and-hybridization-&t=Shapes+and+hybridization+"><i class="fa fa-facebook-square"></i><span>Facebook</span></a></li><li><a class="" href="http://www.linkedin.com/shareArticle?mini=true&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thinkib.net%2Fchemistry%2Fpage%2F17378%2Fshapes-and-hybridization-"><i class="fa fa-linkedin-square"></i><span>LinkedIn</span></a></li><li><a class="" href="https://plus.google.com/share?url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thinkib.net%2Fchemistry%2Fpage%2F17378%2Fshapes-and-hybridization-"><i class="fa fa-google-plus-square"></i><span>Google +</span></a></li><li><a class="" href="mailto:?subject=Shapes and hybridization &body=Two related topics that students seem to find difficult are ‘Shapes of simple molecules and ions” and’ Hybridization’. 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