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nuclear fission reactions</a></li><li><a href="../19429/solar-energy-1.html">Solar energy</a></li><li><a href="../19437/environmental-impact-global-warming-1.html">Environmental impact - global warming</a></li><li><a href="../19453/electrochemistry-rechargeable-batteries-fuel-cells-1.html">Electrochemistry, rechargeable batteries & fuel cells</a></li><li><a href="../19458/nuclear-fusion-fission-hl--1.html">Nuclear fusion & fission (HL) </a></li><li><a href="../19470/photovoltaic-cells-and-dsscs-1.html">Photovoltaic cells and DSSCs</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../19078/option-d-1.html" class="father">Option D</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../19079/pharmaceutical-products-drug-action--1.html">Pharmaceutical products & drug action </a></li><li><a href="../19158/aspirin-penicillin--1.html">Aspirin & penicillin </a></li><li><a href="../19174/opiates-1.html">Opiates</a></li><li><a href="../19184/ph-regulation-of-the-stomach-1.html">pH regulation of the stomach</a></li><li><a href="../19194/antiviral-medications--1.html">Antiviral medications </a></li><li><a href="../19211/environmental-impact-of-some-medications-1.html">Environmental impact of some medications</a></li><li><a href="../19254/taxol-a-chiral-auxiliary-case-study-1.html">Taxol - a chiral auxiliary case study</a></li><li><a href="../19258/nuclear-medicine--1.html">Nuclear medicine </a></li><li><a href="../19273/drug-detection-analysis--1.html">Drug detection & analysis </a></li></ul></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16592/practical-scheme-of-work-ia--1.html">Practical scheme of work & IA </a><ul class="level-1"><li><a href="../16682/internal-assessment-1.html" class="father">Internal Assessment</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../18892/scaffolding-the-investigation-1.html">'Scaffolding' the investigation</a></li><li><a href="../18896/timing-organisation--1.html">Timing & organisation </a></li><li><a href="../18905/choosing-the-research-question-1.html">Choosing the research question</a></li><li><a href="../18946/personal-engagement-1.html">Personal engagement</a></li><li><a href="../18950/exploration-1.html">Exploration</a></li><li><a href="../18957/analysis-1.html">Analysis</a></li><li><a href="../18965/evaluation-1.html">Evaluation</a></li><li><a href="../18966/communication-1.html">Communication</a></li><li><a href="../19882/internal-standardization-of-the-ia-1.html">Internal standardization of the IA</a></li><li><a href="../19901/submitting-the-samples-for-moderation-2.html">Submitting the samples for moderation</a></li><li><a href="../33754/ten-suggestions-for-ias-using-secondary-data-1.html">Ten suggestions for IAs using secondary data</a></li><li><a href="../37544/gaining-full-marks-for-a-databased-ia--1.html">Gaining full marks for a databased IA </a></li><li><a href="../19506/ia-example-marking-exercise--1.html">IA example & marking exercise </a></li><li><a href="../23929/genuine-examples-of-moderated-ia-reports-1.html">Genuine examples of moderated IA reports</a></li><li><a href="../25234/examples-of-teacher-marked-ia-reports--1.html">Examples of teacher-marked IA reports </a></li><li><a href="../37542/history-of-internal-assessment-1.html">History of Internal Assessment</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16598/mandatory-laboratory-components-1.html" class="father">Mandatory laboratory components</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../16613/formula-of-magnesium-oxide--1.html">Formula of magnesium oxide </a></li><li><a href="../16612/determining-the-mr-of-an-unknown-gas-1.html">Determining the <i>M</i><sub>r</sub> of an unknown gas</a></li><li><a href="../16615/acid-base-titrations--1.html">Acid-base titrations </a></li><li><a href="../16616/a-green-acid-base-practical-1.html">A green acid-base practical</a></li><li><a href="../16617/analysis-of-aspirin-tablets-1.html">Analysis of aspirin tablets</a></li><li><a href="../16618/caco3-in-egg-shells-1.html">CaCO<sub>3</sub> in egg shells</a></li><li><a href="../16644/enthalpy-changes-1.html">Enthalpy changes</a></li><li><a href="../16631/reaction-rates-1.html">Reaction rates</a></li><li><a href="../16635/rate-dependent-factors-1.html">Rate-dependent factors</a></li><li><a href="../16636/determining-ea-for-a-reaction-1.html">Determining <i>E</i><sub>a</sub> for a reaction</a></li><li><a href="../16637/iodination-of-propanone-1.html">Iodination of propanone</a></li><li><a href="../18144/titrations-with-a-ph-meter-1.html">Titrations with a pH meter</a></li><li><a href="../18355/redox-titration-with-kmno4--1.html">Redox titration with KMnO<sub>4</sub> </a></li><li><a href="../16640/voltaic-cells-1.html">Voltaic cells</a></li><li><a href="../16659/3-d-molecular-modelling--1.html">3-D molecular modelling </a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../17168/other-good-practicals-1.html" class="father">Other good practicals</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../17196/common-chemical-reactions-1.html">Common chemical reactions</a></li><li><a href="../227/elements-oxides-of-the-third-period--1.html">Elements & oxides of the third period </a></li><li><a href="../17239/the-halogens-1.html">The halogens</a></li><li><a href="../17162/boiling-points-of-mixtures-1.html">Boiling points of mixtures</a></li><li><a href="../17170/polarity-of-molecules-1.html">Polarity of molecules</a></li><li><a href="../18083/le-chateliers-principle--1.html">Le Chatelier's principle </a></li><li><a href="../19582/determining-kc-for-an-esterification-reaction-1.html">Determining <i>K</i><sub>c</sub> for an esterification reaction</a></li><li><a href="../18164/redox-reactions-of-vanadium--1.html">Redox reactions of vanadium </a></li><li><a href="../18351/chlorine-in-swimming-pools--1.html">Chlorine in swimming pools </a></li><li><a href="../18178/analysis-of-cuii-ions-in-solution--1.html">Analysis of Cu(II) ions in solution </a></li><li><a href="../18179/percentage-of-copper-in-brass-1.html">Percentage of copper in brass</a></li><li><a href="../18356/electrolytic-cells--1.html">Electrolytic cells </a></li><li><a href="../18598/reactions-of-organic-compounds-1.html">Reactions of organic compounds</a></li><li><a href="../18752/hydrolysis-of-halogenoalkanes-1.html">Hydrolysis of halogenoalkanes</a></li><li><a href="../18784/preparation-of-13-dinitrobenzene--1.html">Preparation of 1,3-dinitrobenzene </a></li><li><a href="../19022/determination-of-an-organic-structure-1.html">Determination of an organic structure</a></li><li><a href="../19887/preparation-of-nylon-66-1.html">Preparation of nylon 6,6</a></li><li><a href="../19343/determination-of-vitamin-c-content--1.html">Determination of vitamin C content </a></li><li><a href="../19342/hydrolysis-of-starch--1.html">Hydrolysis of starch </a></li><li><a href="../19159/preparation-purification-of-aspirin--1.html">Preparation & purification of aspirin </a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../18851/ict-in-practical-work-1.html" class="father">ICT in practical work</a><ul 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Chemistry?</a></li><li><a href="../3505/a-modern-paradigm-1.html">A modern paradigm</a></li></ul></li></ul></li><li><a href="../17783/fast-track-to-tests-questions-1.html">Fast track to tests & questions</a><ul class="level-1"><li><a href="../17784/sl-multiple-choice-tests-on-individual-topics-1.html">SL Multiple choice tests on individual topics</a></li><li><a href="../24351/sl-multiple-choice-quizzes-on-sub-topics-1.html">SL Multiple choice 'quizzes' on sub-topics</a></li><li><a href="../31519/sl-practice-paper-1-exams-1.html">SL Practice Paper 1 exams</a></li><li><a href="../17786/sl-questions-on-each-sub-topic-1.html">SL Questions on each sub-topic</a></li><li><a href="../20431/sl-paper-3-section-a-questions-1.html">SL Paper 3 Section A questions</a></li><li><a href="../17792/sl-questions-on-the-options-1.html">SL Questions on the options</a></li><li><a href="../24897/sl-quizzes-on-option-sub-topics--1.html">SL Quizzes on option sub-topics </a></li><li><a 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href="../40919/covalent-structures-1-questions-1.html" title="Covalent structures (1) questions">Covalent structures (1) questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../17122/covalent-structures-2-1.html" title="Covalent structures (2)">Covalent structures (2)</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24481/mc-test-covalent-structures-2--1.html" title="MC test: Covalent structures (2) ">MC test: Covalent structures (2) </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../40918/covalent-structure-2-shapes-polarity-questions-1.html" title="Covalent structure (2) Shapes & polarity questions">Covalent structure (2) Shapes & polarity questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../17160/intermolecular-forces-1.html" title="Intermolecular forces">Intermolecular forces</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24512/mc-test-intermolecular-forces-1.html" title="MC test: Intermolecular forces">MC test: Intermolecular forces</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../40937/intermolecular-forces-questions-1.html" title="Intermolecular forces questions">Intermolecular forces questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../17237/metallic-bonding-1.html" title="Metallic bonding">Metallic bonding</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24513/mc-test-metallic-bonding-1.html" title="MC test: Metallic bonding">MC test: Metallic bonding</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../40939/metallic-bonding-questions-1.html" title="Metallic bonding questions">Metallic bonding questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../17260/further-aspects-of-covalent-bonding--1.html" title="Further aspects of covalent bonding ">Further aspects of covalent bonding </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24553/mc-test-further-aspects-of-covalent-bonding-1.html" title="MC test: Further aspects of covalent bonding">MC test: Further aspects of covalent bonding</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../40940/further-aspects-of-covalent-bonding-questions-1.html" title="Further aspects of covalent bonding questions">Further aspects of covalent bonding questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../17258/hybridization-1.html" title="Hybridization">Hybridization</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24555/mc-test-hybridization-1.html" title="MC test: Hybridization">MC test: Hybridization</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../40941/hybridization-questions-1.html" title="Hybridization questions">Hybridization questions</a></li></ul></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../17669/topics-5-15--1.html" title="Topics 5 & 15 ">Topics 5 & 15 </a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../17685/measuring-energy-changes-1.html" title="Measuring energy changes">Measuring energy changes</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24581/mc-test-measuring-energy-changes-1.html" title="MC test: Measuring energy changes">MC test: Measuring energy changes</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39536/measuring-energy-changes-questions--1.html" title="Measuring energy changes questions ">Measuring energy changes questions </a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../17689/hesss-law--1.html" title="Hess's Law ">Hess's Law </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24582/mc-test-hesss-law-1.html" title="MC test: Hess's Law">MC test: Hess's Law</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39546/hesss-law-questions-1.html" title="Hess's Law questions">Hess's Law questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../17774/bond-enthalpies-1.html" title="Bond enthalpies">Bond enthalpies</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24591/mc-test-bond-enthalpies-1.html" title="MC test: Bond enthalpies">MC test: Bond enthalpies</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39547/bond-enthalpy-questions--1.html" title="Bond enthalpy questions ">Bond enthalpy questions </a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../17776/energy-cycles--1.html" title="Energy cycles ">Energy cycles </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24593/mc-test-energy-cycles-1.html" title="MC test: Energy cycles">MC test: Energy cycles</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39569/energy-cycles-questions--1.html" title="Energy cycles questions ">Energy cycles questions </a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../17780/entropy-spontaneity--1.html" title="Entropy & spontaneity ">Entropy & spontaneity </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24608/mc-test-entropy-spontaneity-1.html" title="MC test: Entropy & spontaneity">MC test: Entropy & spontaneity</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39650/entropy-spontaneity-questions--1.html" title="Entropy & spontaneity questions ">Entropy & spontaneity questions </a></li></ul></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../17848/topics-6-16-1.html" title="Topics 6 & 16">Topics 6 & 16</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../17850/collision-theory-rates-of-reaction-1.html" title="Collision theory & rates of reaction">Collision theory & rates of reaction</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24640/mc-test-collision-theory-rates-of-reaction-1.html" title="MC test: Collision theory & rates of reaction">MC test: Collision theory & rates of reaction</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../40946/collision-theory-questions-1.html" title="Collision theory questions">Collision theory questions</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../40947/rates-of-reaction-questions-1.html" title="Rates of reaction questions">Rates of reaction questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../17870/rate-expression-reaction-mechanism-1.html" title="Rate expression & reaction mechanism">Rate expression & reaction mechanism</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24645/mc-test-rate-expression-reaction-mechanisms-1.html" title="MC test: Rate expression & reaction mechanisms">MC test: Rate expression & reaction mechanisms</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../40949/rate-expression-questions-1.html" title="Rate expression questions">Rate expression questions</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../40950/reaction-mechanisms-questions-1.html" title="Reaction mechanisms questions">Reaction mechanisms questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../17876/activation-energy-1.html" title="Activation energy">Activation energy</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24651/mc-test-activation-energy-1.html" title="MC test: Activation energy">MC test: Activation energy</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../40954/activation-energy-questions-1.html" title="Activation energy questions">Activation energy questions</a></li></ul></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18038/topics-7-17--1.html" title="Topics 7 & 17 ">Topics 7 & 17 </a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18040/equilibrium--1.html" title="Equilibrium ">Equilibrium </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24656/mc-test-equilibrium-1.html" title="MC test: Equilibrium">MC test: Equilibrium</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../40959/equilibrium-questions-1.html" title="Equilibrium questions">Equilibrium questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18091/equilibrium-law--1.html" title="Equilibrium law ">Equilibrium law </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24660/mc-test-the-equilibrium-law-1.html" title="MC test: The equilibrium law">MC test: The equilibrium law</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../40961/equilibrium-law-questions-1.html" title="Equilibrium law questions">Equilibrium law questions</a></li></ul></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18120/topics-8-18--1.html" title="Topics 8 & 18 ">Topics 8 & 18 </a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18124/theories-of-acids-bases--1.html" title="Theories of acids & bases ">Theories of acids & bases </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24662/mc-test-theories-of-acids-bases-1.html" title="MC test: Theories of acids & bases">MC test: Theories of acids & bases</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../40963/theories-of-acids-bases-questions-1.html" title="Theories of acids & bases questions">Theories of acids & bases questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18126/properties-of-acids-bases-1.html" title="Properties of acids & bases">Properties of acids & bases</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24663/mc-test-properties-of-acids-bases--1.html" title="MC test: Properties of acids & bases ">MC test: Properties of acids & bases </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../40964/properties-of-acids-bases-questions-1.html" title="Properties of acids & bases questions">Properties of acids & bases questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18140/ph-scale-1.html" title="pH scale">pH scale</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24668/mc-test-the-ph-scale-1.html" title="MC test: The pH scale">MC test: The pH scale</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../40971/ph-scale-questions-1.html" title="pH scale questions">pH scale questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18152/strong-weak-acids-bases-1.html" title="Strong & weak acids & bases">Strong & weak acids & bases</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24670/mc-test-strong-weak-acids-bases-1.html" title="MC test: Strong & weak acids & bases">MC test: Strong & weak acids & bases</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../40972/strong-weak-acid-bases-questions-1.html" title="Strong & weak acid & bases questions">Strong & weak acid & bases questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18156/acid-deposition-1.html" title="Acid deposition">Acid deposition</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24674/mc-test-acid-deposition-1.html" title="MC test: Acid deposition">MC test: Acid deposition</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../40983/acid-deposition-questions-1.html" title="Acid deposition questions">Acid deposition questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18160/lewis-acids-bases-1.html" title="Lewis acids & bases">Lewis acids & bases</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24710/mc-test-lewis-acids-bases-1.html" title="MC test: Lewis acids & bases">MC test: Lewis acids & bases</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../40986/lewis-acids-bases-questions-1.html" title="Lewis acids & bases questions">Lewis acids & bases questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18250/acid-base-calculations-1.html" title="Acid base calculations">Acid base calculations</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24714/mc-test-calculations-involving-acids-bases--1.html" title="MC test: Calculations involving acids & bases ">MC test: Calculations involving acids & bases </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../40988/acid-base-calculations-questions--1.html" title="Acid-base calculations questions ">Acid-base calculations questions </a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../26161/ph-titration-curves-1.html" title="pH titration curves">pH titration curves</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../26158/mc-test-ph-curves-1.html" title="MC test: pH curves">MC test: pH curves</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41000/ph-curves-questions--1.html" title="pH curves questions ">pH curves questions </a></li></ul></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18350/topics-9-19-1.html" title="Topics 9 & 19">Topics 9 & 19</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18365/oxidation-reduction-1.html" title="Oxidation & reduction">Oxidation & reduction</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24725/mc-test-oxidation-reduction-1.html" title="MC test: Oxidation & reduction">MC test: Oxidation & reduction</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41033/oxidation-reduction-questions-1--1.html" title="Oxidation & reduction questions (1) ">Oxidation & reduction questions (1) </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41034/oxidation-reduction-questions-2-1.html" title="Oxidation & reduction questions (2)">Oxidation & reduction questions (2)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41035/oxidation-reduction-questions-3-1.html" title="Oxidation & reduction questions (3)">Oxidation & reduction questions (3)</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18383/electrochemical-cells-1.html" title="Electrochemical cells">Electrochemical cells</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24740/mc-test-electrochemical-cells-1.html" title="MC test: Electrochemical cells">MC test: Electrochemical cells</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41072/electrochemical-cells-questions--1.html" title="Electrochemical cells questions ">Electrochemical cells questions </a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18401/electrochemical-cells-ahl--1.html" title="Electrochemical cells (AHL) ">Electrochemical cells (AHL) </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24742/mc-test-electrochemical-cells-ahl-1.html" title="MC test: Electrochemical cells (AHL)">MC test: Electrochemical cells (AHL)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41098/electrochemical-cells-1-ahl-questions-1.html" title="Electrochemical cells (1) (AHL) questions">Electrochemical cells (1) (AHL) questions</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41099/electrochemical-cells-2-ahl-questions-1.html" title="Electrochemical cells (2) (AHL) questions">Electrochemical cells (2) (AHL) questions</a></li></ul></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18475/topics-10-20--1.html" title="Topics 10 & 20 ">Topics 10 & 20 </a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18497/fundamentals-of-organic-chemistry--1.html" title="Fundamentals of organic chemistry ">Fundamentals of organic chemistry </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24749/mc-test-fundamentals-of-organic-chemistry-1.html" title="MC test: Fundamentals of organic chemistry">MC test: Fundamentals of organic chemistry</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41111/fundamentals-of-organic-chemistry-1-questions-1.html" title="Fundamentals of organic chemistry (1) questions">Fundamentals of organic chemistry (1) questions</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41112/fundamentals-of-organic-chemistry-2-questions-1.html" title="Fundamentals of organic chemistry (2) questions">Fundamentals of organic chemistry (2) questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18597/alkanes-alkenes-addition-polymers-1.html" title="Alkanes, alkenes & addition polymers">Alkanes, alkenes & addition polymers</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24750/mc-test-alkanes-alkenes-addition-polymers-1.html" title="MC test: Alkanes, alkenes & addition polymers">MC test: Alkanes, alkenes & addition polymers</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41121/alkanes-questions-1.html" title="Alkanes questions">Alkanes questions</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41124/alkenes-questions-1.html" title="Alkenes questions">Alkenes questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18741/alcohols--1.html" title="Alcohols ">Alcohols </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24772/mc-test-alcohols-1.html" title="MC test: Alcohols">MC test: Alcohols</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41125/alcohols-questions-1.html" title="Alcohols questions">Alcohols questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18742/halogenoalkanes-benzene--1.html" title="Halogenoalkanes & benzene ">Halogenoalkanes & benzene </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24797/mc-test-halogenoalkanes-benzene-1.html" title="MC test: Halogenoalkanes & benzene">MC test: Halogenoalkanes & benzene</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41130/halogenoalkanes-benzene-questions-1.html" title="Halogenoalkanes & benzene questions">Halogenoalkanes & benzene questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18762/nucleophilic-substitution--1.html" title="Nucleophilic substitution ">Nucleophilic substitution </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24757/mc-test-nucleophilic-substitution-1.html" title="MC test: Nucleophilic substitution">MC test: Nucleophilic substitution</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41138/nucleophilic-substitution-questions-1.html" title="Nucleophilic substitution questions">Nucleophilic substitution questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18766/electrophilic-addition--1.html" title="Electrophilic addition ">Electrophilic addition </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24805/mc-test-electrophilic-addition-electrophilic-substitution-reacti-2.html" title="MC test: Electrophilic addition & electrophilic substitution reactions">MC test: Electrophilic addition & electrophilic substitution reactions</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41148/electrophilic-addition-questions-1.html" title="Electrophilic addition questions">Electrophilic addition questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18780/electrophilic-substitution--2.html" title="Electrophilic substitution ">Electrophilic substitution </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41149/electrophilic-substitution-questions-1.html" title="Electrophilic substitution questions">Electrophilic substitution questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18793/reduction-reactions--1.html" title="Reduction reactions ">Reduction reactions </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24811/mc-test-reduction-reactions-1.html" title="MC test: Reduction reactions">MC test: Reduction reactions</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41150/reduction-reactions-questions-1.html" title="Reduction reactions questions">Reduction reactions questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18797/synthetic-routes--1.html" title="Synthetic routes ">Synthetic routes </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24822/mc-test-synthetic-routes-1.html" title="MC test: Synthetic routes">MC test: Synthetic routes</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41152/synthetic-routes-questions--1.html" title="Synthetic routes questions ">Synthetic routes questions </a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18844/stereoisomerism--1.html" title="Stereoisomerism ">Stereoisomerism </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24817/mc-test-stereoisomerism-1.html" title="MC test: Stereoisomerism">MC test: Stereoisomerism</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41166/stereoisomerism-questions-1.html" title="Stereoisomerism questions">Stereoisomerism questions</a></li></ul></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../17285/topics-11-21--1.html" title="Topics 11 & 21 ">Topics 11 & 21 </a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../17276/uncertainty-errors--1.html" title="Uncertainty & errors ">Uncertainty & errors </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24818/mc-test-uncertainties-errors-1.html" title="MC test: Uncertainties & errors">MC test: Uncertainties & errors</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../38869/uncertainty-error-questions--1.html" title="Uncertainty & error questions ">Uncertainty & error questions </a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../15014/graphical-techniques-1.html" title="Graphical techniques">Graphical techniques</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24819/mc-test-graphical-techniques-1.html" title="MC test: Graphical techniques">MC test: Graphical techniques</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39387/graphical-techniques-questions--1.html" title="Graphical techniques questions ">Graphical techniques questions </a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18968/spectroscopic-identification-of-organic-compounds-1.html" title="Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds">Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24820/mc-test-spectroscopic-identification-of-organic-compounds--1.html" title="MC test: Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds ">MC test: Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39388/index-of-hydrogen-deficiency-questions-1.html" title="Index of hydrogen deficiency questions">Index of hydrogen deficiency questions</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39351/identification-from-spectra-question-1-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 1">Identification from spectra - Question 1</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39353/identification-from-spectra-question-2-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 2">Identification from spectra - Question 2</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39354/identification-from-spectra-question-3-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 3">Identification from spectra - Question 3</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39355/identification-from-spectra-question-4-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 4">Identification from spectra - Question 4</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39356/identification-from-spectra-question-5-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 5">Identification from spectra - Question 5</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39357/identification-from-spectra-question-6-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 6">Identification from spectra - Question 6</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39358/identification-from-spectra-question-7-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 7">Identification from spectra - Question 7</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39359/identification-from-spectra-question-8-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 8">Identification from spectra - Question 8</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39360/identification-from-spectra-question-9-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 9">Identification from spectra - Question 9</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39361/identification-from-spectra-question-10-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 10">Identification from spectra - Question 10</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../19027/spectroscopic-identification-of-organic-compounds-ahl--1.html" title="Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds (AHL) ">Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds (AHL) </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24821/mc-test-spectroscopic-identification-of-organic-compounds-ahl-1.html" title="MC test: Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds (AHL)">MC test: Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds (AHL)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39375/identification-from-spectra-question-11-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 11">Identification from spectra - Question 11</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39376/identification-from-spectra-question-12-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 12">Identification from spectra - Question 12</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39377/identification-from-spectra-question-13-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 13">Identification from spectra - Question 13</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39378/identification-from-spectra-question-14-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 14">Identification from spectra - Question 14</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39379/identification-from-spectra-question-15-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 15">Identification from spectra - Question 15</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39380/identification-from-spectra-question-16-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 16">Identification from spectra - Question 16</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39381/identification-from-spectra-question-17-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 17">Identification from spectra - Question 17</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39382/identification-from-spectra-question-18-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 18">Identification from spectra - Question 18</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39383/identification-from-spectra-question-19-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 19">Identification from spectra - Question 19</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39385/identification-from-spectra-question-20-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 20">Identification from spectra - Question 20</a></li></ul></ul></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 0px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../16441/the-nature-of-science-1.html" title="The Nature of Science">The Nature of Science</a></li><ul class="level-1 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../16450/key-terms-concepts-1.html" title="Key terms & concepts">Key terms & concepts</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../34566/nos-critical-thinking-1.html" title="NOS & Critical Thinking">NOS & Critical Thinking</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../32100/how-the-elements-were-named-1.html" title="How the elements were named">How the elements were named</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../36753/the-culture-of-chemistry-1.html" title="The Culture of Chemistry">The Culture of Chemistry</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../17333/nature-of-science-questions-1.html" title="Nature of Science questions">Nature of Science questions</a></li></ul><li class="ancestor parent" style="padding-left: 0px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right fa-rotate-90"></i><a href="../16413/incorporating-im-tok-utilization-etc-1.html" title="Incorporating IM, TOK, 'Utilization' etc.">Incorporating IM, TOK, 'Utilization' etc.</a></li><ul class="level-1 expanded"><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../16414/topic-1-1.html" title="Topic 1">Topic 1</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../16916/topics-2-12-1.html" title="Topics 2 & 12">Topics 2 & 12</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../17023/topics-3-13--1.html" title="Topics 3 & 13 ">Topics 3 & 13 </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../17055/topics-4-14--1.html" title="Topics 4 & 14 ">Topics 4 & 14 </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../17270/topics-5-15--1.html" title="Topics 5 & 15 ">Topics 5 & 15 </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../17854/topics-6-16--1.html" title="Topics 6 & 16 ">Topics 6 & 16 </a></li><li class="current" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="topics-7-17--1.html" title="Topics 7 & 17 ">Topics 7 & 17 </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18099/topics-8-18-1.html" title="Topics 8 & 18">Topics 8 & 18</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18349/topics-9-19--1.html" title="Topics 9 & 19 ">Topics 9 & 19 </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18420/topics-10-20-1.html" title="Topics 10 & 20">Topics 10 & 20</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../17269/topics-11-21--1.html" title="Topics 11 & 21 ">Topics 11 & 21 </a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 0px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../17866/utilization-relationships-between-topics--1.html" title="'Utilization' - Relationships between topics ">'Utilization' - Relationships between topics </a></li><ul class="level-1 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../17867/relating-topics-4-14-to-all-the-other-topics-1.html" title="Relating Topics 4 & 14 to all the other topics">Relating Topics 4 & 14 to all the other topics</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../17868/example-of-connections-1.html" title="Example of connections">Example of connections</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../34404/hydroxychloroquine-ib-chemistry-1.html" title="Hydroxychloroquine & IB Chemistry">Hydroxychloroquine & IB Chemistry</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../35418/ammonium-nitrate-ib-chemistry-1.html" title="Ammonium nitrate & IB Chemistry">Ammonium nitrate & IB Chemistry</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 0px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../16685/multiple-choice-tests-for-each-topic-1.html" title="Multiple choice tests for each topic">Multiple choice tests for each topic</a></li><ul class="level-1 "><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../16687/sl-questions-by-topic-1.html" title="SL Questions by topic">SL Questions by topic</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../16903/1-stoichiometric-relationships-1--1.html" title="1. Stoichiometric relationships (1) ">1. Stoichiometric relationships (1) </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../16904/1-stoichiometric-relationships-2--1.html" title="1. Stoichiometric relationships (2) ">1. Stoichiometric relationships (2) </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../16710/2-atomic-structure-1.html" title="2. Atomic structure">2. Atomic structure</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../16738/3-periodicity-1.html" title="3. Periodicity">3. Periodicity</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../16822/4-chemical-bonding-structure-1-1.html" title="4. Chemical bonding & structure (1)">4. Chemical bonding & structure (1)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../16823/4-chemical-bonding-structure-2-1.html" title="4. Chemical bonding & structure (2)">4. Chemical bonding & structure (2)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../16887/5-energetics-thermochemistry-1.html" title="5. Energetics & thermochemistry">5. Energetics & thermochemistry</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../16906/6-chemical-kinetics-1.html" title="6. Chemical kinetics">6. Chemical kinetics</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../17464/7-equilibrium-1.html" title="7. Equilibrium">7. Equilibrium</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../17420/8-acids-and-bases-1.html" title="8. Acids and bases">8. Acids and bases</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../17416/9-redox-processes-1.html" title="9. Redox processes">9. Redox processes</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../17411/10-organic-chemistry-1--1.html" title="10. Organic chemistry (1) ">10. Organic chemistry (1) </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../17412/10-organic-chemistry-2--1.html" title="10. Organic chemistry (2) ">10. Organic chemistry (2) </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../17286/11-measurement-data-processing-1--1.html" title="11. Measurement & data processing (1) ">11. Measurement & data processing (1) </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../17287/11-measurement-data-processing-2-1.html" title="11. Measurement & data processing (2)">11. Measurement & data processing (2)</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../16688/hl-questions-by-topic-1.html" title="HL Questions by topic">HL Questions by topic</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../16709/1-stoichiometric-relationships-1-1.html" title="1. Stoichiometric relationships (1)">1. Stoichiometric relationships (1)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../16735/1-stoichiometric-relationships-2-1.html" title="1. Stoichiometric relationships (2)">1. Stoichiometric relationships (2)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../37016/2-12-atomic-structure-1-1.html" title="2 &12. Atomic structure (1)">2 &12. Atomic structure (1)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../16721/2-12-atomic-structure-2-1.html" title="2 &12. Atomic structure (2)">2 &12. Atomic structure (2)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../16815/3-13-periodicity-transition-metals-1--1.html" title="3 & 13. Periodicity & transition metals (1) ">3 & 13. Periodicity & transition metals (1) </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../16816/3-13-periodicity-transition-metals-2--1.html" title="3 & 13. Periodicity & transition metals (2) ">3 & 13. Periodicity & transition metals (2) </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../16861/4-14-chemical-bonding-structure-1-1.html" title="4 & 14. Chemical bonding & structure (1)">4 & 14. Chemical bonding & structure (1)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../16862/4-14-chemical-bonding-structure-2-1.html" title="4 & 14. Chemical bonding & structure (2)">4 & 14. Chemical bonding & structure (2)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../16894/5-15-energetics-thermochemistry-1--1.html" title="5 & 15. Energetics & thermochemistry (1) ">5 & 15. Energetics & thermochemistry (1) </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../16893/5-15-energetics-thermochemistry-2--1.html" title="5 & 15. Energetics & thermochemistry (2) ">5 & 15. Energetics & thermochemistry (2) </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../17654/6-16-chemical-kinetics-1--1.html" title="6 & 16. Chemical kinetics (1) ">6 & 16. Chemical kinetics (1) </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../17655/6-16-chemical-kinetics-2--1.html" title="6 & 16. Chemical kinetics (2) ">6 & 16. Chemical kinetics (2) </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../17471/7-17-equilibrium-1--1.html" title="7 & 17. Equilibrium (1) ">7 & 17. Equilibrium (1) </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../17472/7-17-equilibrium-2--1.html" title="7 & 17. Equilibrium (2) ">7 & 17. Equilibrium (2) </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../17421/8-18-acids-bases-1--1.html" title="8 & 18. Acids & bases (1) ">8 & 18. Acids & bases (1) </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../17422/8-18-acids-bases-2--1.html" title="8 & 18. Acids & bases (2) ">8 & 18. Acids & bases (2) </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../17417/9-19-redox-processes-1--1.html" title="9 & 19 Redox processes (1) ">9 & 19 Redox processes (1) </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../17418/9-19-redox-processes-2--1.html" title="9 & 19. Redox processes (2) ">9 & 19. Redox processes (2) </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../17413/10-20-organic-chemistry-1--1.html" title="10 & 20. Organic chemistry (1) ">10 & 20. Organic chemistry (1) </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../17415/10-20-organic-chemistry-2--1.html" title="10 & 20. Organic chemistry (2) ">10 & 20. Organic chemistry (2) </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../17288/11-21-measurement-data-processing-analysis-1-1.html" title="11 & 21. Measurement, data processing & analysis (1)">11 & 21. Measurement, data processing & analysis (1)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../17289/11-21-measurement-data-processing-analysis-2--1.html" title="11 & 21. Measurement, data processing & analysis (2) ">11 & 21. Measurement, data processing & analysis (2) </a></li></ul></ul></ul></nav></div><!-- /#left-column-->
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</div><section id="main-content"><div id="toc-1672969627" class="toc"><a href="#" class="toc-switcher" title="Show table of contents"><small><i class="fa fa-reorder"></i> Table of contents <span class="pull-right"><i class="fa fa-chevron-down"></i></span></small></a></div><h1>Including International-mindedness, TOK, and 'Utilization' in Equilibrium</h1><div class="blueBg"><h2>International-mindedness</h2><p><img class="ico" src="../../../img/icons/standard-1.png"> <img class="ico" src="../../../img/icons/higher-1.png"> <strong>1. The location of Heavy Industries</strong></p><p>It used to be said that the amount of sulfuric acid a country produced was a good measure of the economic strength of the country (see <strong>2. Sulfuric acid – an indicator of the state of the </strong><strong>economy in 'Utilization' </strong>at the foot of this page). This is because sulfuric acid is the world's largest bulk chemical and is involved in many different industrial processes. However this statement no longer holds true as many rich industrial countries now import much of their sulfuric acid. This is principally due to Health and Safety regulations, environmental targets and the costs of litigation following accidents. Many of the developed countries have stopped building new heavy industry plants and are instead focussing on producing cleaner speciality chemicals using high technology such as bioengineering. The heavy industries now tend to be located more in the less developed countries where the cost of labour is cheaper and the regulations are less stringent.</p><hr class="hidden"><p><img alt="smiley" class="ico" height="16" src="../../../img/tib-icons/standard-level-16-1.png" title="smiley" width="16"> <img class="ico" src="../../../img/icons/higher-1.png"> <strong>2. The melting of the polar ice caps</strong></p><p>Physical systems are also in dynamic equilibrium. These include ice and liquid water (solid-liquid equilibrium) and liquid water and water vapour (liquid-vapour equilibrium). One of the big international concerns is global warming and its effect on the polar ice-caps. In <a href="https://edition.cnn.com/2021/05/19/world/iceberg-a-76-antarctica-intl/index.html#:~:text=The%20iceberg%20broke%20off%20the,(15.5%20miles)%20in%20width.">May 2021 a huge iceberg</a> measuring some 170 x 25 km (an area about the size of the Spanish island of Mallorca) broke away from the Antarctic ice cap which threatened marine life in the area. In the northern hemisphere the effect of global warming on the arctic ice has meant that the Northwest Passage shipping route along the northern coast of North America which connects the Arctic and Pacific oceans is now navigable all year round. The Northwest Passage is claimed by Canada as part of their internal territorial waters but other countries claim it is an international shipping route.</p><p style="text-align: center; "><img alt="" src="../../../ib/chemistry/images/Core and AHL/Northwest_passage.jpg" style="width: 600px; height: 226px;" title="Shipping routes forming the Northwest Passage around North America"></p><hr class="hidden"></div><hr class="hidden"><div class="greenBg"><h2>Theory of Knowledge</h2><p>The concept of dynamic equilibrium lends itself to several Theory of Knowledge issues.</p><hr class="hidden"><p><img class="ico" src="../../../img/icons/standard-1.png"> <img class="ico" src="../../../img/icons/higher-1.png"> <strong>1. Predictions not explanations</strong></p><p>When I am marking examination scripts I find that students often confuse predictions with explanations. There are several classic cases where this occurs. One is where students try to explain the product formed by the addition of hydrogen halides to asymmetrical alkenes by simply quoting Markovnikov’s rule. The other example is from equilibrium. Le Chatelier’s Principle enables students to predict what will occur if one of the factors governing the position of equilibrium is altered but it does not explain it. Consider the typical equilibrium reaction quoted for the formation of ethyl ethanoate from ethanol and ethanoic acid:</p><p style="text-align: center;">CH<sub>3</sub>COOH(l) + C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>5</sub>OH(l) ⇄ CH<sub>3</sub>COOC<sub>2</sub>H<sub>5</sub>(l) + H<sub>2</sub>O(l)</p><p>If we remove some of the water from the equilibrium mixture then according to Le Chatelier’s Principle we can predict that more of the ethanoic acid and ethanol will react to try to replace it. I think it is better to get students to be able to explain why as then their prediction will be based on sound deductions rather than just applying a principle. The explanation can be found in the equilibrium expression:</p><p style="text-align: center;"><img alt="" class="noborder" height="50" src="../../../ib/chemistry/images/Core and AHL/ester equilibrium expression.jpg" width="250"></p><p>If the concentration of the water is lowered then in order to keep <em>K</em><sub>c</sub> constant more of the ethanoic acid and ethanol must combine to form the ester and water.</p><hr class="hidden"><p><img class="ico" src="../../../img/icons/standard-1.png"> <img class="ico" src="../../../img/icons/higher-1.png"> <strong>2. "Seeing is believing"</strong><br><br>One of the ways of knowing is to perceive by using the senses. Some years ago one of the ten TOK essay titles effectively asked students to discuss the statement ‘Seeing is believing’. When we look at a system that is in a state of dynamic equilibrium we do not see anything which would lead us to conclude that change is still taking place. For example a gas syringe filled with nitrogen dioxide appears brown. We cannot see that a dynamic equilibrium exists between brown nitrogen dioxide molecules and colourless dinitrogen tetroxide molecules.</p><p style="text-align: center;">2NO<sub>2</sub>(g) ⇄ N<sub>2</sub>O<sub>4</sub><br><span style="font-size: 11px;">(brown) (colourless)</span></p><p>If we disturb the equilibrium by pushing the plunger in we will see the mixture momentarily go darker as the concentration of the nitrogen dioxide increases. Then we will see it go lighter than it was initially as the position of equilibrium is restored with a greater concentration of dinitrogen tetroxide present in the equilibrium mixture to counteract the increase in pressure. But once the position of equilibrium is restored the colour remains constant again. So how can we know that the equilibrium really is dynamic and that the rate of conversion of nitrogen dioxide to dinitrogen tetroxide is equal to the rate of the reverse reaction? Fortunately there is a way by using isotopes. Consider a mixture of ice and water at 0 <sup>o</sup>C. If we make the ice out of heavy water, D<sub>2</sub>O and surround it by normal water then if the equilibrium is static there will be no D<sub>2</sub>O present in the liquid water however long we leave it. If the equilibrium is dynamic then although the amount of ice and liquid water will remain constant the liquid water will soon show the presence of D<sub>2</sub>O. You might like to show your students an interesting video on heavy ice which shows that it is more dense than water and therefore, unlike ice made from normal water, sinks rather than floats.</p><hr class="hidden"><p style="text-align: center;"><iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="280" src="//www.youtube.com/embed/hUVzb0fzHsk?rel=0" width="360"></iframe></p><p style="text-align: center; "><object height="288" width="360"></object><a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hUVzb0fzHsk&feature=player_embedded">Heavy water <img class="ico" src="../../../img/icons/video-1.png"><span class="anchor" id="video-1" name="video-1"> </span></a> - a video produced by Nottingham University</p><h3></h3></div><p><span style="font-family: 'arial narrow',arial,helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 20px; color: rgb(0, 51, 102); font-weight: bold;"></span></p><hr class="hidden"><div class="pinkBg"><h2>'Utilization'</h2><p>The Haber Process and the story of Fritz Haber is actually listed under both Theory of Knowledge and International-Mindedness in Topic 7 but in effect it is the utilization of equilibrium.</p><hr class="hidden"><p><img class="ico" src="../../../img/icons/standard-1.png"> <img class="ico" src="../../../img/icons/higher-1.png"> <strong>1. The story of Fritz Haber</strong></p><p>The story of Fritz Haber is fascinating. Fritz Haber (1868–1934) was a German chemist who won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1918 for his synthesis of ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen.</p><p><br>Haber was a complex and highly intelligent man, whose life in many ways provides a good example of the political and social responsibilities facing eminent scientists. His discovery of a method to mIB Docs (2) Teamfacture ammonia from its elements meant that food production could be increased through the use of artificial fertilizers, but his discovery also undoubtedly prolonged the First World War. Ammonia can be oxidized to nitric acid, from which explosives (containing nitrates and nitro compounds) are made. Prior to Haber’s discovery in 1911, nitrates came principally from natural deposits in South America. This meant that the country with the most powerful navy could control the supply of nitrates and hence the production of explosives. Haber’s discovery enabled Germany to become independent of external sources of nitrates.</p><p><img alt="" class="noborder" src="../../../ib/chemistry/images/2014%20Core%20%26%20AHL/Topics-7---17/soldiers-wearing-gas-masks-in-the-First-World-War.jpg" style="width: 440px; height: 261px; float: left;" title="Soldiers wearing gas masks in the First World War ">During the First World War Haber served his country by using his chemical knowledge to develop gas masks, and also to develop the use of chlorine as the first war gas. Haber himself personally supervised the release of chlorine in the trenches. Wilfred Owen’s poem, “Dulce et Decorum Est”, eloquently refers to the “green sea” of chlorine faced by the soldiers at the time.</p><hr class="hidden"><img alt="" class="noborder" src="../../../ib/chemistry/images/2014%20Core%20%26%20AHL/Topics-7---17/Clara-Haber-(1870-1915).jpg" style="width: 340px; height: 471px; float: right;" title="Clara Haber (1870-1915)"><p>Haber’s wife, Clara (right), who was also a chemist, vehemently opposed his developing war gases because she saw them as morally wrong. She took her own life in protest by shooting herself in 1915.</p><p>After the war ended, Haber continued to work as a chemist, and helped to develop a substance that produced hydrogen cyanide gas for use as an insecticide. Ironically, this substance, known as Zyklon B, may have been used to kill many of his own relatives, who perished in concentration camps.</p><p>Having been honoured by his country for his contribution to science, Haber, who was Jewish, was then forced to emigrate in 1933 to avoid persecution by the Nazis. He died very shortly after this in Switzerland in 1934.</p><p><br>Fritz Haber was a polymath. He was widely read and knowledgeable in history, economics, science and industry. He was an excellent administrator, giving the people who worked for him the freedom to pursue their own ideas, and he was also an excellent communicator. His main discovery had the potential for great good and great evil. His life was one of service to his country, normally a quality that would be praised. Haber defended the use of chemicals in war by stating that death was death, by whatever means it was inflicted. In 1925 the Geneva Protocol banned the use of poison gas in warfare; to date 132 countries have signed this protocol.</p><p>You can read more and also listen to the story of Fritz Haber on a <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-13015210">BBC programme</a>.</p><hr class="hidden"><p><img class="ico" src="../../../img/icons/standard-1.png"> <img class="ico" src="../../../img/icons/higher-1.png"> <strong>2. Sulfuric acid – an indicator of the state of the economy</strong></p><p><a href="http://www.sriconsulting.com/CEH/Public/Reports/781.5000/"><img alt="" class="left" src="../../../ib/chemistry/images/Core and AHL/sulfuric acid.gif" title="A pi chart showing worldwide consumption of sulfuric acid (click on the image for source)"></a>Two very important industrial examples of equilibrium are the Haber process for making ammonia and the Contact Process for making sulfuric acid. Sulfuric acid has many uses. Its main use is in the production of fertilizers. Some of its other uses are in the mIB Docs (2) Teamfacture of dye stuffs, explosives and paper, the pickling and refining of metals and in car batteries. In the mid-19th century Justus von Liebig, a German chemist, commented that the wealth of a nation could be gauged by the amount of sulfuric acid it produced. Nowadays it is more to do with the amount of sulfuric acid used rather than produced as many nations import much of their sulfuric acid rather than produce it themselves. Along with the production of ammonia and sodium hydroxide (caustic soda), it is also a good economic indicator of the state of the economy. According to a report written by <a href="https://ihsmarkit.com/products/sulfuric-acid-chemical-economics-handbook.html">Bala Surash for the Chemical Economic Handbook</a> sulfuric acid consumption increased worldwide by about 25% during the period 1990-2008 but with the onset of the ‘credit crunch’ world consumption fell steeply during the second half of 2008, although it has now recovered again.</p><hr class="hidden"><p><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; "></span></p></div></section></article><section id="media-extras"><div class="page-actions no-print navbar inline hidden-desktop"><div class="navbar-inner"><ul class="nav"><li><a class="presentation" href="#" onclick="return false;"><i class="fa fa-desktop"></i></a></li><li><a class="print-section-blog" href="#" onclick="return false;"><i class="fa fa-print"></i></a></li><li><a class="page-bookmarker" data-ticket="IB Docs (2) Team" data-pid="18041" href="#" onclick="return false;"><i class="fa fa-star"></i></a></li><li><a class="personal-notes" href="#" onclick="return false;"><i class="fa fa-file-text"></i></a></li><li><a class="" data-toggle="modal" href="#modal-feedback" onclick="return false;"><i class="fa fa-envelope-o"></i></a></li><li class="dropdown"><a class="dropdown-toggle" data-toggle="dropdown" data-target="#" href="#"><i class="fa fa-share-alt"></i></a><ul class="dropdown-menu" role="menu"><li><a class="" target="_blank" title="Share on Twitter" href="https://twitter.com/share?text=%22Topics+7+%26+17+%22+-+via+%40InThinker+%23chemistry%0A&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thinkib.net%2Fchemistry%2Fpage%2F18041%2Ftopics-7-17-"><i class="fa fa-twitter-square"></i><span>Twitter</span></a></li><li><a class="" target="_blank" title="Share on Facebook" href="https://www.facebook.com/sharer.php?u=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thinkib.net%2Fchemistry%2Fpage%2F18041%2Ftopics-7-17-&t=Topics+7+&+17+"><i class="fa fa-facebook-square"></i><span>Facebook</span></a></li><li><a class="" href="http://www.linkedin.com/shareArticle?mini=true&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thinkib.net%2Fchemistry%2Fpage%2F18041%2Ftopics-7-17-"><i class="fa fa-linkedin-square"></i><span>LinkedIn</span></a></li><li><a class="" href="https://plus.google.com/share?url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thinkib.net%2Fchemistry%2Fpage%2F18041%2Ftopics-7-17-"><i class="fa fa-google-plus-square"></i><span>Google +</span></a></li><li><a class="" href="mailto:?subject=Topics 7 & 17 &body= 1. 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