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<title>DP Chemistry: 19.1 Electrochemical cells (AHL)</title>
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'Utilization' etc.</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../16414/topic-1-1.html">Topic 1</a></li><li><a href="../16916/topics-2-12-1.html">Topics 2 & 12</a></li><li><a href="../17023/topics-3-13--1.html">Topics 3 & 13 </a></li><li><a href="../17055/topics-4-14--1.html">Topics 4 & 14 </a></li><li><a href="../17270/topics-5-15--1.html">Topics 5 & 15 </a></li><li><a href="../17854/topics-6-16--1.html">Topics 6 & 16 </a></li><li><a href="../18041/topics-7-17--1.html">Topics 7 & 17 </a></li><li><a href="../18099/topics-8-18-1.html">Topics 8 & 18</a></li><li><a href="../18349/topics-9-19--1.html">Topics 9 & 19 </a></li><li><a href="../18420/topics-10-20-1.html">Topics 10 & 20</a></li><li><a href="../17269/topics-11-21--1.html">Topics 11 & 21 </a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../17866/utilization-relationships-between-topics--1.html" class="father">'Utilization' - Relationships between topics </a><ul class="level-2"><li><a 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science </a></li><li><a href="../19519/metals-and-icp-spectroscopy-1.html">Metals and ICP spectroscopy</a></li><li><a href="../19541/catalysts--1.html">Catalysts </a></li><li><a href="../19580/liquid-crystals-1.html">Liquid crystals</a></li><li><a href="../19665/polymers--1.html">Polymers </a></li><li><a href="../19672/nanotechnology-1.html">Nanotechnology</a></li><li><a href="../19843/environmental-impact-plastics-1.html">Environmental impact - plastics</a></li><li><a href="../19858/superconducting-metals-x-ray-crystallography--1.html">Superconducting metals & X-ray crystallography </a></li><li><a href="../19666/condensation-polymers-1.html">Condensation polymers</a></li><li><a href="../19916/environmental-impact-heavy-metals-1.html">Environmental impact - heavy metals</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../19284/option-b--1.html" class="father">Option B </a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../19290/introduction-to-biochemistry--1.html">Introduction to biochemistry </a></li><li><a href="../19287/proteins-enzymes--1.html">Proteins & enzymes </a></li><li><a href="../19291/lipids-1.html">Lipids</a></li><li><a href="../19299/carbohydrates--1.html">Carbohydrates </a></li><li><a href="../19305/vitamins--1.html">Vitamins </a></li><li><a href="../19313/biochemistry-the-environment--1.html">Biochemistry & the environment </a></li><li><a href="../19336/proteins-enzymes-ahl--1.html">Proteins & enzymes (AHL) </a></li><li><a href="../19347/nucleic-acids--1.html">Nucleic acids </a></li><li><a href="../19361/biological-pigments--1.html">Biological pigments </a></li><li><a href="../19366/stereochemistry-in-biomolecules-1.html">Stereochemistry in biomolecules</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../19390/option-c--1.html" class="father">Option C </a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../19391/energy-sources-1.html">Energy sources</a></li><li><a href="../19407/fossil-fuels-1.html">Fossil fuels</a></li><li><a href="../19411/nuclear-fusion-nuclear-fission-reactions-1.html">Nuclear fusion & nuclear fission reactions</a></li><li><a href="../19429/solar-energy-1.html">Solar energy</a></li><li><a href="../19437/environmental-impact-global-warming-1.html">Environmental impact - global warming</a></li><li><a href="../19453/electrochemistry-rechargeable-batteries-fuel-cells-1.html">Electrochemistry, rechargeable batteries & fuel cells</a></li><li><a href="../19458/nuclear-fusion-fission-hl--1.html">Nuclear fusion & fission (HL) </a></li><li><a href="../19470/photovoltaic-cells-and-dsscs-1.html">Photovoltaic cells and DSSCs</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../19078/option-d-1.html" class="father">Option D</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../19079/pharmaceutical-products-drug-action--1.html">Pharmaceutical products & drug action </a></li><li><a href="../19158/aspirin-penicillin--1.html">Aspirin & penicillin </a></li><li><a href="../19174/opiates-1.html">Opiates</a></li><li><a href="../19184/ph-regulation-of-the-stomach-1.html">pH regulation of the stomach</a></li><li><a href="../19194/antiviral-medications--1.html">Antiviral medications </a></li><li><a href="../19211/environmental-impact-of-some-medications-1.html">Environmental impact of some medications</a></li><li><a href="../19254/taxol-a-chiral-auxiliary-case-study-1.html">Taxol - a chiral auxiliary case study</a></li><li><a href="../19258/nuclear-medicine--1.html">Nuclear medicine </a></li><li><a href="../19273/drug-detection-analysis--1.html">Drug detection & analysis </a></li></ul></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16592/practical-scheme-of-work-ia--1.html">Practical scheme of work & IA </a><ul class="level-1"><li><a href="../16682/internal-assessment-1.html" class="father">Internal Assessment</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../18892/scaffolding-the-investigation-1.html">'Scaffolding' the investigation</a></li><li><a href="../18896/timing-organisation--1.html">Timing & organisation </a></li><li><a href="../18905/choosing-the-research-question-1.html">Choosing the research question</a></li><li><a href="../18946/personal-engagement-1.html">Personal engagement</a></li><li><a href="../18950/exploration-1.html">Exploration</a></li><li><a href="../18957/analysis-1.html">Analysis</a></li><li><a href="../18965/evaluation-1.html">Evaluation</a></li><li><a href="../18966/communication-1.html">Communication</a></li><li><a href="../19882/internal-standardization-of-the-ia-1.html">Internal standardization of the IA</a></li><li><a href="../19901/submitting-the-samples-for-moderation-2.html">Submitting the samples for moderation</a></li><li><a href="../33754/ten-suggestions-for-ias-using-secondary-data-1.html">Ten suggestions for IAs using secondary data</a></li><li><a href="../37544/gaining-full-marks-for-a-databased-ia--1.html">Gaining full marks for a databased IA </a></li><li><a href="../19506/ia-example-marking-exercise--1.html">IA example & marking exercise </a></li><li><a href="../23929/genuine-examples-of-moderated-ia-reports-1.html">Genuine examples of moderated IA reports</a></li><li><a href="../25234/examples-of-teacher-marked-ia-reports--1.html">Examples of teacher-marked IA reports </a></li><li><a href="../37542/history-of-internal-assessment-1.html">History of Internal Assessment</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16598/mandatory-laboratory-components-1.html" class="father">Mandatory laboratory components</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../16613/formula-of-magnesium-oxide--1.html">Formula of magnesium oxide </a></li><li><a href="../16612/determining-the-mr-of-an-unknown-gas-1.html">Determining the <i>M</i><sub>r</sub> of an unknown gas</a></li><li><a href="../16615/acid-base-titrations--1.html">Acid-base titrations </a></li><li><a href="../16616/a-green-acid-base-practical-1.html">A green acid-base practical</a></li><li><a href="../16617/analysis-of-aspirin-tablets-1.html">Analysis of aspirin tablets</a></li><li><a href="../16618/caco3-in-egg-shells-1.html">CaCO<sub>3</sub> in egg shells</a></li><li><a href="../16644/enthalpy-changes-1.html">Enthalpy changes</a></li><li><a href="../16631/reaction-rates-1.html">Reaction rates</a></li><li><a href="../16635/rate-dependent-factors-1.html">Rate-dependent factors</a></li><li><a href="../16636/determining-ea-for-a-reaction-1.html">Determining <i>E</i><sub>a</sub> for a reaction</a></li><li><a href="../16637/iodination-of-propanone-1.html">Iodination of propanone</a></li><li><a href="../18144/titrations-with-a-ph-meter-1.html">Titrations with a pH meter</a></li><li><a href="../18355/redox-titration-with-kmno4--1.html">Redox titration with KMnO<sub>4</sub> </a></li><li><a href="../16640/voltaic-cells-1.html">Voltaic cells</a></li><li><a href="../16659/3-d-molecular-modelling--1.html">3-D molecular modelling </a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../17168/other-good-practicals-1.html" class="father">Other good practicals</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../17196/common-chemical-reactions-1.html">Common chemical reactions</a></li><li><a href="../227/elements-oxides-of-the-third-period--1.html">Elements & oxides of the third period </a></li><li><a href="../17239/the-halogens-1.html">The halogens</a></li><li><a href="../17162/boiling-points-of-mixtures-1.html">Boiling points of mixtures</a></li><li><a href="../17170/polarity-of-molecules-1.html">Polarity of molecules</a></li><li><a href="../18083/le-chateliers-principle--1.html">Le Chatelier's principle </a></li><li><a href="../19582/determining-kc-for-an-esterification-reaction-1.html">Determining <i>K</i><sub>c</sub> for an esterification reaction</a></li><li><a href="../18164/redox-reactions-of-vanadium--1.html">Redox reactions of vanadium </a></li><li><a href="../18351/chlorine-in-swimming-pools--1.html">Chlorine in swimming pools </a></li><li><a href="../18178/analysis-of-cuii-ions-in-solution--1.html">Analysis of Cu(II) ions in solution </a></li><li><a href="../18179/percentage-of-copper-in-brass-1.html">Percentage of copper in brass</a></li><li><a href="../18356/electrolytic-cells--1.html">Electrolytic cells </a></li><li><a href="../18598/reactions-of-organic-compounds-1.html">Reactions of organic compounds</a></li><li><a href="../18752/hydrolysis-of-halogenoalkanes-1.html">Hydrolysis of halogenoalkanes</a></li><li><a href="../18784/preparation-of-13-dinitrobenzene--1.html">Preparation of 1,3-dinitrobenzene </a></li><li><a href="../19022/determination-of-an-organic-structure-1.html">Determination of an organic structure</a></li><li><a href="../19887/preparation-of-nylon-66-1.html">Preparation of nylon 6,6</a></li><li><a href="../19343/determination-of-vitamin-c-content--1.html">Determination of vitamin C content </a></li><li><a href="../19342/hydrolysis-of-starch--1.html">Hydrolysis of starch </a></li><li><a href="../19159/preparation-purification-of-aspirin--1.html">Preparation & purification of aspirin </a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../18851/ict-in-practical-work-1.html" class="father">ICT in practical work</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../18852/data-logging--1.html">Data logging </a></li><li><a href="../18853/software-for-graph-plotting--1.html">Software for graph plotting </a></li><li><a href="../18854/spreadsheets-for-data-processing--1.html">Spreadsheets for data processing </a></li><li><a href="../18855/databases-1.html">Databases</a></li><li><a href="../18856/computer-modelling-simulations--1.html">Computer modelling & simulations </a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16594/group-4-project-1.html" class="father">Group 4 Project</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../16595/practicalities-1.html">Practicalities</a></li><li><a href="../16596/reflective-statement--2.html">Reflective statement </a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16666/a-new-laboratory-1.html">A new laboratory?</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16284/exams-1.html">Exams</a><ul class="level-1"><li><a href="../16286/essential-facts-1.html" class="father">Essential Facts</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../16287/objectives-command-terms-1.html">Objectives & command terms</a></li><li><a href="../16288/grade-descriptors-1.html">Grade descriptors</a></li><li><a href="../16289/grade-boundaries-1.html">Grade boundaries</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16302/paper-1-multiple-choice-1.html" class="father">Paper 1 (Multiple Choice)</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../16303/advice-to-students-paper-1-1.html">Advice to students (Paper 1)</a></li><li><a href="../31515/practice-paper-1-exams-1.html">Practice Paper 1 exams</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16305/paper-2-1.html" class="father">Paper 2</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../16306/advice-to-students-paper-2-1.html">Advice to students (Paper 2)</a></li><li><a href="../16307/areas-of-difficulty-1.html">Areas of difficulty</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16313/paper-3--1.html" class="father">Paper 3 </a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../16314/advice-to-students-paper-3-1.html">Advice to students (Paper 3)</a></li><li><a href="../16342/data-response-questions-1.html">Data response questions</a></li><li><a href="../20054/experimental-work-questions-1.html">Experimental work questions</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16324/the-examination-process-1.html" class="father">The examination process</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../16316/setting-the-exam-papers-1.html">Setting the exam papers</a></li><li><a href="../16317/predicted-grades-1.html">Predicted grades</a></li><li><a href="../16318/marking-the-papers-1.html">Marking the papers</a></li><li><a href="../16319/commenting-on-the-exams-1.html">Commenting on the exams</a></li><li><a href="../16320/grade-awarding-1.html">Grade Awarding</a></li><li><a href="../16321/enquiry-upon-results-1.html">Enquiry upon results</a></li><li><a href="../16322/chief-examiners-report-1.html">Chief Examiner's report</a></li><li><a href="../16323/retaking-the-exam-1.html">Retaking the exam</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16325/faqs-1.html">FAQs</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../3147/ib-core-1.html">IB Core</a><ul class="level-1"><li><a href="../3149/learner-profile-1.html">Learner Profile</a></li><li><a href="../21735/extended-essays--1.html" class="father">Extended Essays </a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../21736/overview--1.html">Overview </a></li><li><a href="../21780/responsibilities-1.html">Responsibilities</a></li><li><a href="../21790/resources-1.html">Resources</a></li><li><a href="../21800/research-1.html">Research</a></li><li><a href="../21804/writing-the-essay-1.html">Writing the essay</a></li><li><a href="../21810/assessment-1.html">Assessment</a></li><li><a href="../22434/summary-of-advice--1.html">Summary of advice </a></li><li><a href="../25272/faqs--1.html">FAQs </a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../307/theory-of-knowledge-tok-1.html" class="father">Theory of Knowledge (TOK)</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../41171/the-12-tok-concepts-1.html">The 12 TOK concepts</a></li><li><a href="../3507/why-tok-chemistry-1.html">Why TOK & Chemistry?</a></li><li><a href="../3505/a-modern-paradigm-1.html">A modern paradigm</a></li></ul></li></ul></li><li><a href="../17783/fast-track-to-tests-questions-1.html">Fast track to tests & questions</a><ul class="level-1"><li><a href="../17784/sl-multiple-choice-tests-on-individual-topics-1.html">SL Multiple choice tests on individual topics</a></li><li><a href="../24351/sl-multiple-choice-quizzes-on-sub-topics-1.html">SL Multiple choice 'quizzes' on sub-topics</a></li><li><a href="../31519/sl-practice-paper-1-exams-1.html">SL Practice Paper 1 exams</a></li><li><a href="../17786/sl-questions-on-each-sub-topic-1.html">SL Questions on each sub-topic</a></li><li><a href="../20431/sl-paper-3-section-a-questions-1.html">SL Paper 3 Section A questions</a></li><li><a href="../17792/sl-questions-on-the-options-1.html">SL Questions on the options</a></li><li><a href="../24897/sl-quizzes-on-option-sub-topics--1.html">SL Quizzes on option sub-topics </a></li><li><a href="../17785/hl-multiple-choice-tests-on-individual-topics-1.html">HL Multiple choice tests on individual topics</a></li><li><a href="../24352/hl-multiple-choice-quizzes-on-sub-topics-1.html">HL Multiple choice 'quizzes' on sub-topics</a></li><li><a href="../31520/hl-practice-paper-1-exams--1.html">HL Practice Paper 1 exams </a></li><li><a href="../17787/hl-questions-on-each-sub-topic--1.html">HL Questions on each sub-topic </a></li><li><a href="../20428/hl-paper-3-section-a-questions-1.html">HL Paper 3 Section A questions</a></li><li><a href="../17793/hl-questions-on-the-options-1.html">HL Questions on the options</a></li><li><a href="../24973/hl-quizzes-on-option-sub-topics-1.html">HL Quizzes on option sub-topics</a></li><li><a href="../41573/printable-versions-of-written-tasks--1.html">Printable versions of written tasks </a></li></ul></li><li class="selected"><a href="../41465/complete-course-for-students--2.html">Complete course for students </a><ul class="level-1"><li 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14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27960/topics-2-12-atomic-structure-1.html" title="Topics 2 & 12 : Atomic structure">Topics 2 & 12 : Atomic structure</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27961/21-the-nuclear-atom--1.html" title="2.1 The nuclear atom ">2.1 The nuclear atom </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27962/22-electron-configuration--1.html" title="2.2 Electron configuration ">2.2 Electron configuration </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27963/121-electrons-in-atoms--1.html" title="12.1 Electrons in atoms ">12.1 Electrons in atoms </a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27965/topics-3-13-periodicity-1.html" title="Topics 3 & 13 : Periodicity">Topics 3 & 13 : Periodicity</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27966/31-the-periodic-table-1.html" title="3.1 The periodic table">3.1 The periodic table</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27967/32-periodic-trends--1.html" title="3.2 Periodic trends ">3.2 Periodic trends </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27968/131-first-row-d-block-elements-1.html" title="13.1 First-row d-block elements">13.1 First-row d-block elements</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27970/132-coloured-complexes-1.html" title="13.2 Coloured complexes">13.2 Coloured complexes</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27971/topics-4-14-chemical-bonding-structure-1.html" title="Topics 4 & 14 : Chemical bonding & structure">Topics 4 & 14 : Chemical bonding & structure</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27972/41-ionic-bonding-structure--1.html" title="4.1 Ionic bonding & structure ">4.1 Ionic bonding & structure </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27973/42-covalent-bonding-1.html" title="4.2 Covalent bonding">4.2 Covalent bonding</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27974/43-covalent-structures-1--1.html" title="4.3 Covalent structures (1) ">4.3 Covalent structures (1) </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27980/43-covalent-structures-2--1.html" title="4.3 Covalent structures (2) ">4.3 Covalent structures (2) </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i 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15 : Energetics/thermochemistry</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27989/51-measuring-energy-changes-1.html" title="5.1 Measuring energy changes">5.1 Measuring energy changes</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27991/52-hesss-law-1.html" title="5.2 Hess's Law">5.2 Hess's Law</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27992/53-bond-enthalpies--1.html" title="5.3 Bond enthalpies ">5.3 Bond enthalpies </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27993/151-energy-cycles-1.html" title="15.1 Energy cycles">15.1 Energy cycles</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27994/152-entropy-spontaneity-1.html" title="15.2 Entropy & spontaneity">15.2 Entropy & spontaneity</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27995/topics-6-16-chemical-kinetics-1.html" title="Topics 6 & 16 : Chemical kinetics">Topics 6 & 16 : Chemical kinetics</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27996/61-collision-theory-rates-of-reaction-1.html" title="6.1 Collision theory & rates of reaction">6.1 Collision theory & rates of reaction</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27997/161-rate-expression-reaction-mechanism-1.html" title="16.1 Rate expression & reaction mechanism">16.1 Rate expression & reaction mechanism</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27998/162-activation-energy-1.html" title="16.2 Activation energy">16.2 Activation energy</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28001/topics-7-17-equilibrium--1.html" title="Topics 7 & 17 : Equilibrium ">Topics 7 & 17 : Equilibrium </a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27999/71-equilibrium-1.html" title="7.1 Equilibrium">7.1 Equilibrium</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28000/171-equilibrium-law-1.html" title="17.1 Equilibrium law">17.1 Equilibrium law</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28017/topics-8-18-acids-and-bases--1.html" title="Topics 8 & 18 : Acids and bases ">Topics 8 & 18 : Acids and bases </a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28002/81-theories-of-acids-bases-1.html" title="8.1 Theories of acids & bases">8.1 Theories of acids & bases</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28010/82-properties-of-acids-bases-1.html" title="8.2 Properties of acids & bases">8.2 Properties of acids & bases</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28011/83-ph-scale-1.html" title="8.3 pH scale">8.3 pH scale</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28012/84-strong-weak-acids-bases-1.html" title="8.4 Strong & weak acids & bases">8.4 Strong & weak acids & bases</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28013/85-acid-deposition--1.html" title="8.5 Acid deposition ">8.5 Acid deposition </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28014/181-lewis-acids-bases--1.html" title="18.1 Lewis acids & bases ">18.1 Lewis acids & bases </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28015/182-calculations-involving-acids-bases--1.html" title="18.2 Calculations involving acids & bases ">18.2 Calculations involving acids & bases </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28016/183-ph-titration-curves-1.html" title="18.3 pH titration curves">18.3 pH titration curves</a></li></ul><li class="ancestor parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right fa-rotate-90"></i><a href="../28031/topics-9-19-redox-process-1.html" title="Topics 9 & 19 : Redox process">Topics 9 & 19 : Redox process</a></li><ul class="level-2 expanded"><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28021/91-oxidation-reduction-1.html" title="9.1 Oxidation & reduction">9.1 Oxidation & reduction</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28022/92-electrochemical-cells-1.html" title="9.2 Electrochemical cells">9.2 Electrochemical cells</a></li><li class="current" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="191-electrochemical-cells-ahl-1.html" title="19.1 Electrochemical cells (AHL)">19.1 Electrochemical cells (AHL)</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28061/topics-10-20-organic-chemistry-1.html" title="Topics 10 & 20 : Organic chemistry">Topics 10 & 20 : Organic chemistry</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28042/101-fundamentals-of-organic-chemistry-1.html" title="10.1 Fundamentals of organic chemistry">10.1 Fundamentals of organic chemistry</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28043/1021-alkanes-alkenes-addition-polymers-1.html" title="10.2(1) Alkanes, alkenes & addition polymers">10.2(1) Alkanes, alkenes & addition polymers</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28044/1022-alcohols--1.html" title="10.2(2) Alcohols ">10.2(2) Alcohols </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28047/1023-halogenoalkanes-benzene-1.html" title="10.2(3) Halogenoalkanes & benzene">10.2(3) Halogenoalkanes & benzene</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28050/2011-nucleophilic-substitution--1.html" title="20.1(1) Nucleophilic substitution ">20.1(1) Nucleophilic substitution </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28051/2012-electrophilic-addition--1.html" title="20.1(2) Electrophilic addition ">20.1(2) Electrophilic addition </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28053/2013-electrophilic-substitution-1.html" title="20.1(3) Electrophilic substitution">20.1(3) Electrophilic substitution</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28054/2014-reduction-reactions--1.html" title="20.1(4) Reduction reactions ">20.1(4) Reduction reactions </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28056/202-synthetic-routes--1.html" title="20.2 Synthetic routes ">20.2 Synthetic routes </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28059/203-stereoisomerism--1.html" title="20.3 Stereoisomerism ">20.3 Stereoisomerism </a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28038/topics-11-21-measurement-data-processing-analysis-1.html" title="Topics 11 & 21 : Measurement, data processing & analysis">Topics 11 & 21 : Measurement, data processing & analysis</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28032/111-uncertainty-errors--1.html" title="11.1 Uncertainty & errors ">11.1 Uncertainty & errors </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28033/112-graphical-techniques-1.html" title="11.2 Graphical techniques">11.2 Graphical techniques</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28034/113-spectroscopic-identification-of-organic-compounds-1.html" title="11.3 Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds">11.3 Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28039/211-spectroscopic-identification-of-organic-compounds-ahl-1.html" title="21.1 Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds (AHL)">21.1 Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds (AHL)</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28074/option-a-materials--1.html" title="Option A : Materials ">Option A : Materials </a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28062/a1-introduction-to-materials-science--1.html" title="A.1 Introduction to materials science ">A.1 Introduction to materials science </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28063/a2-metals-and-icp-spectroscopy-1.html" title="A.2 Metals and ICP spectroscopy">A.2 Metals and ICP spectroscopy</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28065/a3-catalysts--1.html" title="A.3 Catalysts ">A.3 Catalysts </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28066/a4-liquid-crystals-1.html" title="A.4 Liquid crystals">A.4 Liquid crystals</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28067/a5-polymers-1.html" title="A.5 Polymers">A.5 Polymers</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28069/a6-nanotechnology-1.html" title="A.6 Nanotechnology">A.6 Nanotechnology</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28070/a7-environmental-impact-plastics-1.html" title="A.7 Environmental impact - plastics">A.7 Environmental impact - plastics</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28071/a8-superconducting-metals-x-ray-crystallography--1.html" title="A.8 Superconducting metals & X-ray crystallography ">A.8 Superconducting metals & X-ray crystallography </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28072/a9-condensation-polymers-1.html" title="A.9 Condensation polymers">A.9 Condensation polymers</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28073/a10-environmental-impact-heavy-metals-1.html" title="A.10 Environmental impact - heavy metals">A.10 Environmental impact - heavy metals</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28087/option-b-biochemistry-1.html" title="Option B : Biochemistry">Option B : Biochemistry</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28076/b1-introduction-to-biochemistry--1.html" title="B.1 Introduction to biochemistry ">B.1 Introduction to biochemistry </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28078/b2-proteins-enzymes-1.html" title="B.2 Proteins & enzymes">B.2 Proteins & enzymes</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28079/b3-lipids-1.html" title="B.3 Lipids">B.3 Lipids</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28080/b4-carbohydrates-1.html" title="B.4 Carbohydrates">B.4 Carbohydrates</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28081/b5-vitamins-1.html" title="B.5 Vitamins">B.5 Vitamins</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28082/b6-biochemistry-the-environment-1.html" title="B.6 Biochemistry & the environment">B.6 Biochemistry & the environment</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28083/b7-proteins-enzymes-ahl--1.html" title="B.7 Proteins & enzymes (AHL) ">B.7 Proteins & enzymes (AHL) </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28084/b8-nucleic-acids-1.html" title="B.8 Nucleic acids">B.8 Nucleic acids</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28085/b9-biological-pigments-1.html" title="B.9 Biological pigments">B.9 Biological pigments</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28086/b10-stereochemistry-in-biomolecules-1.html" title="B.10 Stereochemistry in biomolecules">B.10 Stereochemistry in biomolecules</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28098/option-c-energy--1.html" title="Option C : Energy ">Option C : Energy </a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28088/c1-energy-sources--1.html" title="C.1 Energy sources ">C.1 Energy sources </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28089/c2-fossil-fuels-1.html" title="C.2 Fossil fuels">C.2 Fossil fuels</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28090/c3-nuclear-fusion-nuclear-fission-reactions-1.html" title="C.3 Nuclear fusion & nuclear fission reactions">C.3 Nuclear fusion & nuclear fission reactions</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28091/c4-solar-energy--1.html" title="C.4 Solar energy ">C.4 Solar energy </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28094/c5-environmental-impact-global-warming--1.html" title="C.5 Environmental impact - global warming ">C.5 Environmental impact - global warming </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28095/c6-electrochemistry-rechargeable-batteries-fuel-cells-1.html" title="C.6 Electrochemistry, rechargeable batteries & fuel cells">C.6 Electrochemistry, rechargeable batteries & fuel cells</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28096/c7-nuclear-fusion-fission-hl--1.html" title="C.7 Nuclear fusion & fission (HL) ">C.7 Nuclear fusion & fission (HL) </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28097/c8-photovoltaic-cells-and-dsscs-1.html" title="C.8 Photovoltaic cells and DSSCs">C.8 Photovoltaic cells and DSSCs</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28109/option-d-medicinal-chemistry-1.html" title="Option D : Medicinal chemistry">Option D : Medicinal chemistry</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28099/d1-pharmaceutical-products-drug-action--1.html" title="D.1 Pharmaceutical products & drug action ">D.1 Pharmaceutical products & drug action </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28100/d2-aspirin-penicillin-1.html" title="D.2 Aspirin & penicillin">D.2 Aspirin & penicillin</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28101/d3-opiates-1.html" title="D.3 Opiates">D.3 Opiates</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28103/d4-ph-regulation-of-the-stomach-1.html" title="D.4 pH regulation of the stomach">D.4 pH regulation of the stomach</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28102/d5-antiviral-medications-1.html" title="D.5 Antiviral medications">D.5 Antiviral medications</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28104/d6-environmental-impact-of-some-medications-1.html" title="D.6 Environmental impact of some medications">D.6 Environmental impact of some medications</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28105/d7-taxol-a-chiral-auxiliary-case-study--1.html" title="D.7 Taxol - a chiral auxiliary case study ">D.7 Taxol - a chiral auxiliary case study </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28107/d8-nuclear-medicine--1.html" title="D.8 Nuclear medicine ">D.8 Nuclear medicine </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28108/d9-drug-detection-analysis-1.html" title="D.9 Drug detection & analysis">D.9 Drug detection & analysis</a></li></ul></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 0px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41553/practical-work-including-ia-group-4-project--1.html" title="Practical work (including IA & Group 4 Project) ">Practical work (including IA & Group 4 Project) </a></li><ul class="level-1 "><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41528/internal-assessment-1.html" title="Internal Assessment">Internal Assessment</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41529/scaffolding-the-investigation-1.html" title="'Scaffolding' the investigation">'Scaffolding' the investigation</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41531/choosing-the-research-question-1.html" title="Choosing the research question">Choosing the research question</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41532/personal-engagement--1.html" title="Personal engagement ">Personal engagement </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41533/exploration-1.html" title="Exploration">Exploration</a></li><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41544/analysis--1.html" title="Analysis ">Analysis </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41545/significant-figures--1.html" title="Significant figures ">Significant figures </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41547/error-uncertainty-1.html" title="Error & uncertainty">Error & uncertainty</a></li></ul><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41548/evaluation--1.html" title="Evaluation ">Evaluation </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41549/communication-1.html" title="Communication">Communication</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41550/genuine-examples-of-marked-ia-reports--1.html" title="Genuine examples of marked IA reports ">Genuine examples of marked IA reports </a></li></ul><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41657/group-4-project-1.html" title="Group 4 Project">Group 4 Project</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 0px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41387/approaches-to-learning--1.html" title="Approaches to learning ">Approaches to learning </a></li><ul class="level-1 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41380/thinking-skills-1.html" title="Thinking skills">Thinking skills</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41383/communication-skills-1.html" title="Communication skills">Communication skills</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41384/social-skills--1.html" title="Social skills ">Social skills </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41385/self-management-skills-1.html" title="Self-management skills">Self-management skills</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41386/research-skills-1.html" title="Research skills">Research skills</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41382/reflection-skills--1.html" title="Reflection skills ">Reflection skills </a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 0px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41488/the-nature-of-science-1.html" title="The Nature of Science">The Nature of Science</a></li><ul class="level-1 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41489/key-terms-concepts--1.html" title="Key terms & concepts ">Key terms & concepts </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41492/how-the-elements-were-named--1.html" title="How the elements were named ">How the elements were named </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41490/nos-critical-thinking-1.html" title="NOS & Critical Thinking">NOS & Critical Thinking</a></li><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41493/the-culture-of-chemistry--1.html" title="The Culture of Chemistry ">The Culture of Chemistry </a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41500/culture-of-chemistry-1-1.html" title="Culture of Chemistry (1)">Culture of Chemistry (1)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41501/culture-of-chemistry-2-1.html" title="Culture of Chemistry (2)">Culture of Chemistry (2)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41502/culture-of-chemistry-3-1.html" title="Culture of Chemistry (3)">Culture of Chemistry (3)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41503/culture-of-chemistry-4--1.html" title="Culture of Chemistry (4) ">Culture of Chemistry (4) </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41504/culture-of-chemistry-5-1.html" title="Culture of Chemistry (5)">Culture of Chemistry (5)</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41494/nature-of-science-questions--1.html" title="Nature of Science questions ">Nature of Science questions </a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41498/nos-question-example-1--1.html" title="NoS question - Example 1 ">NoS question - Example 1 </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41499/nos-question-example-2--1.html" title="NoS question - Example 2 ">NoS question - Example 2 </a></li></ul></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 0px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41401/external-assessment-exams-1.html" title="External assessment (Exams)">External assessment (Exams)</a></li><ul class="level-1 "><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41403/essential-facts--1.html" title="Essential Facts ">Essential Facts </a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41404/objectives-command-terms--1.html" title="Objectives & command terms ">Objectives & command terms </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41408/grade-boundaries--1.html" title="Grade boundaries ">Grade boundaries </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41406/grade-descriptors--1.html" title="Grade descriptors ">Grade descriptors </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41451/your-final-grade-not-good-enough-for-you--1.html" title="Your final grade not good enough for you? ">Your final grade not good enough for you? </a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41409/paper-1-multiple-choice--1.html" title="Paper 1 (Multiple Choice) ">Paper 1 (Multiple Choice) </a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41415/advice-to-students-paper-1--1.html" title="Advice to students (Paper 1) ">Advice to students (Paper 1) </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41416/practice-paper-1-exams--1.html" title="Practice Paper 1 exams ">Practice Paper 1 exams </a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41417/paper-2--1.html" title="Paper 2 ">Paper 2 </a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41418/advice-to-students-paper-2--1.html" title="Advice to students (Paper 2) ">Advice to students (Paper 2) </a></li><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41419/areas-of-difficulty--1.html" title="Areas of difficulty ">Areas of difficulty </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41426/understanding-the-activity-series-1.html" title="Understanding the activity series">Understanding the activity series</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41422/vsepr-1.html" title="VSEPR">VSEPR</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41421/ie-graphs--1.html" title="IE graph(s) ">IE graph(s) </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41420/misuse-of-formulas--1.html" title="Misuse of formulas ">Misuse of formulas </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41425/manipulating-equilibrium-constants--1.html" title="Manipulating equilibrium constants ">Manipulating equilibrium constants </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41428/curly-arrows-1.html" title="'Curly arrows'">'Curly arrows'</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41424/understanding-and-using-g--1.html" title="Understanding and using ΔG ">Understanding and using Δ<em>G </em> </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41430/factors-affecting-the-rate-of-nucleophilic-substitution-reaction-1.html" title="Factors affecting the rate of nucleophilic substitution reactions ">Factors affecting the rate of nucleophilic substitution reactions </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41427/using-electrode-potentials--1.html" title="Using electrode potentials ">Using electrode potentials </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41429/understanding-hybridization--1.html" title="Understanding hybridization ">Understanding hybridization </a></li></ul></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41431/paper-3--1.html" title="Paper 3 ">Paper 3 </a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41432/advice-to-students-paper-3--1.html" title="Advice to students (Paper 3) ">Advice to students (Paper 3) </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41433/data-response-questions--1.html" title="Data response questions ">Data response questions </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41441/experimental-work-questions--1.html" title="Experimental work questions ">Experimental work questions </a></li></ul></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 0px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41662/extended-essay--1.html" title="Extended Essay ">Extended Essay </a></li><ul class="level-1 "><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41685/preparation-1.html" title="Preparation">Preparation</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41663/aims-objectives-1.html" title="Aims & objectives">Aims & objectives</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41665/your-responsibilities-1.html" title="Your responsibilities">Your responsibilities</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41785/choosing-the-subject-1.html" title="Choosing the subject">Choosing the subject</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41686/researching--1.html" title="Researching ">Researching </a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../42069/choosing-the-research-topic--1.html" title="Choosing the research topic ">Choosing the research topic </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../42070/framing-the-research-question-1.html" title="Framing the Research Question">Framing the Research Question</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../42072/researching-your-essay-1.html" title="Researching your Essay">Researching your Essay</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../42097/reflections-on-planning-and-progress--1.html" title="Reflections on planning and progress ">Reflections on planning and progress </a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../42075/writing-the-essay-1.html" title="Writing the essay">Writing the essay</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../42077/correct-referencing-and-bibliography-1.html" title="Correct referencing and bibliography">Correct referencing and bibliography</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../42092/checklist--1.html" title="Checklist ">Checklist </a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41687/assessment-1.html" title="Assessment">Assessment</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../42166/grading-system-1.html" title="Grading system">Grading system</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../42159/criterion-a--1.html" title="Criterion A ">Criterion A </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../42161/criterion-b-1.html" title="Criterion B">Criterion B</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../42163/criterion-c-1.html" title="Criterion C">Criterion C</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../42164/criterion-d--1.html" title="Criterion D ">Criterion D </a></li><li class="" 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</div><section id="main-content"><div id="toc-1672969259" class="toc"><a href="#" class="toc-switcher" title="Show table of contents"><small><i class="fa fa-reorder"></i> Table of contents <span class="pull-right"><i class="fa fa-chevron-down"></i></span></small></a></div><p>Written specifically for students to provide help and support for the IB Diploma chemistry <span data-scayt-word="programme" data-wsc-lang="en_US">programme</span> this page provides full coverage of the syllabus content of Topic 19.1 Electrochemical cells (AHL). It encourages you to think critically and provides many questions with full worked answers so that you can monitor and improve your knowledge and understanding.</p><hr><hr class="hidden"><div class="box"><h2><img alt="" src="../../../ib/chemistry/images/student-learning/she.png" style="width: 1px; height: 1px;"><img alt="" height="21" src="../../../img/tib-icons/higher-level-32-1.png" title="" width="21"> Learning outcomes</h2><p>After studying this topic you should be able to:</p><p><strong><strong>Understand</strong></strong></p><div title="Page 104"><div><div><div><ul><li><img alt="" class="noborder" src="../../../ib/chemistry/images/student-learning/she.png" style="float: right; width: 380px; height: 403px;">Voltaic cells generate an electromotive force, EMF, resulting in the movement of electrons from the negative electrode (anode) to the positive electrode (cathode) through the external circuit. This EMF is known as the cell potential, <em>E</em><sup>⦵</sup>.</li><li>The standard hydrogen electrode, SHE, consists of an inert platinum electrode in a 1 mol dm<sup>-3</sup> aqueous solution of hydrogen ions and in contact with hydrogen gas at 100 kPa and 298 K. <em>E</em><sup>⦵</sup> for the SHE is assigned the value of 0 Volts.</li><li>The standard electrode potential, <em>E</em><sup>⦵</sup>, of any half-cell is the potential (in volts) of the reduction half-equation under standard conditions (1.0 mol dm<sup>-3</sup> concentration for solutions or 100 kPa for gases) measured relative to the SHE at 298 K.</li><li>When aqueous solutions are electrolysed, water can be oxidized to oxygen at the positive electrode (anode) and reduced to hydrogen at the negative electrode (cathode).</li><li>Δ<em>G</em><sup>⦵</sup><sup> </sup>= − <em>nFE</em><sup>⦵</sup><br>When <em>E</em><sup>⦵</sup> is positive, Δ<em>G</em><sup>⦵</sup> is negative and the process is spontaneous. When <em>E</em><sup>⦵</sup> is negative, Δ<em>G</em><sup>⦵</sup> is positive and the process is non-spontaneous. When <em>E</em><sup>⦵</sup> is zero, then Δ<em>G</em><sup>⦵</sup> is also equal to zero.</li><li>The current, the duration of electrolysis and the charge on the ion affect the amount of products formed at the electrodes during electrolysis.</li><li>Electroplating involves the coating of an object with a thin layer of a metal by electrolysis.</li></ul><p><strong>Apply your knowledge to:</strong></p></div></div></div></div><div title="Page 105"><div><div><ul><li>Calculate cell potentials using standard electrode potentials for half-cells.</li><li>Use <em>E</em><sup>⦵</sup> values to predict whether a reaction is spontaneous or non-spontaneous.</li><li>Determine standard free-energy changes, Δ<em>G</em><sup>⦵</sup>, using standard electrode potentials.</li><li>Explain the products formed during the electrolysis of aqueous solutions.</li><li>Carry out laboratory experiments that could include single replacement reactions in aqueous solutions.</li><li>Determine the relative amounts of products formed during electrolytic processes.</li><li>Explain the process of electroplating.<hr class="hidden"></li></ul></div></div></div></div><hr class="hidden"><div class="blueBg"><h2>Relationships & vocabulary</h2><h4>Nature of science</h4><p>The use of standard electrode potentials, whose values are all relative to the standard hydrogen electrode, provides a good example of quantitative reasoning in science.</p><div title="Page 104"><div><div><div><p>Scientists working together on electrochemical cell technologies, where they have had to consider the environmental and ethical implications of using fuel cells and microbial fuel cells, provides a good example of collaboration and ethical implications.</p></div></div></div></div><hr class="hidden"><h4>International-mindedness</h4><p>Many of the world’s energy problems can be alleviated by using electrochemical cells as energy sources. Some cells, e.g. super-efficient microbial fuel cells, MFCs, (also known as biological fuel cells) can also help to clean-up the environment. The international community and national governments have to decide what to prioritise when it comes to funding research projects.</p><hr class="hidden"><p>For more examples and links to <em>International mindedness, Theory of knowledge, utilization etc. </em>see <a href="../18349/topics-9-19--1.html" title="Core & AHL » Incorporating IM, TOK, 'Utilization' etc. » Topics 4 & 14 ">separate page</a> which covers all of Topics 9 & 19: Redox processes.</p><hr class="hidden"><h4>Vocabulary</h4><table><tbody><tr><td>standard hydrogen electrode, SHE</td><td>standard electrode potential,<em> E</em><img src="../../../img/icons/underground.png"></td><td>electromotive force, EMF</td><td>cell potential</td></tr><tr><td>charge (coulombs)<br>= current (amps) x time (s)</td><td>electrolysis of 'water'</td><td>electroplating</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table><hr class="hidden"></div><hr class="hidden"><div class="greenBg"><h2 id="header-6">Learning slides</h2><p>You can use this slide gallery for learning or for reviewing concepts and information. It covers all the key points in the syllabus for this sub-topic.</p><div id="myCarousel-15" class="carousel slide" data-id="311"><!-- Carousel items --><div class="carousel-inner"><div class="active item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-311/1911.png" rel="gallery-311" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/1911.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Electrochemical cells (AHL): </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-311/19121.png" rel="gallery-311" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/19121.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Electrochemical cells (AHL): </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-311/1913.png" rel="gallery-311" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/1913.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Electrochemical cells (AHL): </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-311/1914.png" rel="gallery-311" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/1914.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Electrochemical cells (AHL): </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-311/1915.png" rel="gallery-311" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/1915.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Electrochemical cells (AHL): </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-311/1916.png" rel="gallery-311" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/1916.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Electrochemical cells (AHL): </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-311/1917.png" rel="gallery-311" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/1917.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Electrochemical cells (AHL): </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-311/slide-8.png" rel="gallery-311" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/slide-8.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Electrochemical cells (AHL): </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-311/slide-91.png" rel="gallery-311" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/slide-91.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Electrochemical cells (AHL): </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-311/19110.png" rel="gallery-311" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/19110.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Electrochemical cells (AHL): </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-311/19111.png" rel="gallery-311" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/19111.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Electrochemical cells (AHL): </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-311/19112.png" rel="gallery-311" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/19112.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Electrochemical cells (AHL): </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-311/19113.png" rel="gallery-311" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/19113.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Electrochemical cells (AHL): </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-311/9114.png" rel="gallery-311" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/9114.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Electrochemical cells (AHL): </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-311/19115.png" rel="gallery-311" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/19115.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Electrochemical cells (AHL): </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-311/19116.png" rel="gallery-311" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/19116.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Electrochemical cells (AHL): </p></div></div></div><!-- Carousel nav --><a class="carousel-control left" href="#myCarousel-15" data-slide="prev">‹</a><a class="carousel-control right" href="#myCarousel-15" data-slide="next">›</a><div class="tib-indicators"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 10px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/1911-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/19121-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/1913-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/1914-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/1915-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/1916-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/1917-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/slide-8-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/slide-91-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/19110-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/19111-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/19112-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/19113-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/9114-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/19115-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/19116-thumb128.jpg"></div></div><p> </p></div><hr class="hidden"><div class="pinkBg"><div><h3>Something to think about</h3><p><strong>1. Voltaic cells and standard electrode potentials</strong></p><p>This topic tends to cause students considerable difficulty when they come to answer questions on standard electrode potentials in Paper 2. It is also a topic that many teachers seem to find difficult - maybe there is some relationship between these two statements? The problem seems to stem from what is meant by "standard electrode potential". It could be that the IB data booklet does not help. For example, the lithium half-cell at the top of the electrochemical series in Section 24 of the data booklet appears as:</p><hr class="hidden"><p style="text-align: center;"><img alt="" class="noborder" src="../../../ib/chemistry/images/2014%20Core%20%26%20AHL/Topics-9--19/Section-24-start-of-table-copy.png" style="width: 440px; height: 110px;" title="Taken from the IB data booklet for first exams 2016"></p><hr class="hidden"><p>Because of the way it is written many students (and possibly teachers too) confuse this with an energetics equation and think that if they write the equation the other way round then <em>E</em><img class="ico" src="../../../img/icons/underground.png"> will be equal to + 3.04 V. This is the wrong way of looking at standard electrode potentials. It is better to consider the half-cell as lithium metal in contact with lithium ions, i.e. Li(s)/Li<sup>+</sup>(aq), and when this is connected to a standard hydrogen electrode the minus sign means that electrons will flow from this half-cell to the hydrogen half-cell and the voltage will be 3.04 V. The electrochemical series is simply a list of what happens when all the half-cells in question are connected in turn to a hydrogen half-cell. The <strong>only</strong> concept that is key to remember is that when any two half-cells are connected together to give a spontaneous reaction the electrons will flow <strong>from</strong> the more <strong>negative</strong> half-cell <strong>to</strong> the more <strong>positive </strong>half-cell and the difference between the two values will be the EMF (cell potential) for that cell.</p><hr class="hidden"><p>Let's look at one example to illustrate this. What will happen spontaneously when an Fe<sup>2</sup><sup>+</sup>(aq)/Fe<sup>3</sup><sup>+</sup>(aq) half-cell is connected to an iodine half-cell, ½I<sub>2</sub>(s)/I<sup>–</sup>(aq)?</p><p>To solve this problem draw the cell diagram and write the E<img class="ico" src="../../../img/icons/underground.png"> values from the data booklet under the relevant half-cells:</p><p style="text-align: center;"><br>½I<sub>2</sub>(s)/I<sup>−</sup>(aq) || Fe<sup>2</sup><sup>+</sup>(aq)/Fe<sup>3</sup><sup>+</sup>(aq)<br>+ 0.54 V + 0.77 V</p><p>The more negative (actually the least positive) is the iodine half-cell so the electrons will flow from this half-cell to the Fe<sup>2</sup><sup>+</sup>(aq)/Fe<sup>3</sup><sup>+</sup>(aq) half-cell. That is, the iodine half-cell will lose electrons and the iron ion half-cell will gain electrons so the two half-equations will be:</p><p>Fe<sup>3</sup><sup>+</sup>(aq) + e<sup>–</sup> → Fe<sup>2</sup><sup>+</sup>(aq)<br>2I<sup>–</sup>aq) → I<sub>2</sub>(s) + 2e<sup>–</sup></p><p>So the overall spontaneous reaction is that iron(III) ions will oxidize iodide ions to iodine. The total cell potential (EMF) for this reaction will be 0.23 V.</p><p>2Fe<sup>3</sup><sup>+</sup>(aq) + 2I<sup>–</sup>aq) → I<sub>2</sub>(s) + 2Fe<sup>2</sup><sup>+</sup>(aq) <em>E</em><img class="ico" src="../../../img/icons/underground.png"><sub>cell</sub> = 0.23 V</p><p>A similar question could be asked a different way. Will iron(III) ions oxidise bromide ions to bromine? Solve it the same way. Write the two half-cells, look up their standard electrode potentials and then determine which will be the spontaneous reaction.</p><p style="text-align: center;">Fe<sup>2</sup><sup>+</sup>(aq)/Fe<sup>3</sup><sup>+</sup>(aq) || ½Br<sub>2</sub>(l)/Br<sup>–</sup>(aq)<br>+ 0.77 V + 1.07 V</p><p>Now the iron ion half-cell has the more negative (less positive) value so the electrons flow from this half-cell to the bromine half-cell. The half-equations for the spontaneous reactions become:</p><p>Fe<sup>2</sup><sup>+</sup>(aq) → Fe<sup>3</sup><sup>+</sup>(aq) + e<sup>–</sup><br>Br<sub>2</sub>(l) + 2e<sup>–</sup><sup> </sup> → 2Br<sup>–</sup>aq)</p><p>The overall equation for the spontaneous reaction will be:</p><p>2Fe<sup>2</sup><sup>+</sup>(aq) + Br<sub>2</sub>(l) <sup> </sup> → 2Br<sup>–</sup>(aq) + 2Fe<sup>3</sup><sup>+</sup>(aq) <em>E</em><img class="ico" src="../../../img/icons/underground.png"><sub>cell</sub> = 0.30 V</p><p>What this tells us is that iron(III) ions will not spontaneously oxidize bromide ions to bromine. In fact bromine will spontaneously oxidize iron(II) ions to iron(III) ions.</p><p>If all this is understood you should now be able to answer any questions thrown at you on the use of standard electrode potentials. I have written a <a href="../16310/using-electrode-potentials.html" title="New 2014 programme (First exams 2016) » Exams » Paper 2 » Areas of difficulty » Using electrode potentials">separate page</a> under Areas of difficulty for Paper 2 which gives some more examples.</p><hr class="hidden"><p>One question that students sometimes ask is how the standard electrode potential of very reactive metals like sodium can be determined. You might find it interesting to read a <a href="/media/ib/chemistry/files/Topics/Redox/How%20Eo%20for%20Na%20is%20obtained.pdf">research paper written by Edgar Reynolds Smith and John Keenan Taylor in 1940</a> which details how they obtained the value for the sodium half-cell. Essentially they made use of an indirect method which depends on firstly measuring the potential of dilute sodium amalgam with respect to an aqueous solution of its ions and a reference electrode, and secondly, the difference in potential between the sodium amalgam and the pure metal when both are immersed in a non-aqueous conducting solution containing sodium ions. This non-aqueous solvent must not react with sodium and must dissolve the alkali salt sufficiently to form an electrolytic solution.</p><hr class="hidden"><p><strong>2. Electrolysis of aqueous solutions</strong></p><p>This is quite a difficult topic to learn well. The trick is to understand that only certain examples are required to illustrate the various factors that affect the products (and their amounts) produced during electrolysis.</p><p><strong><img alt="" class="noborder right" height="448" src="../../../ib/chemistry/images/Core%20and%20AHL/redox/HOFFMANN_VOLTAMETER.jpg" title="Hofmann voltameter" width="240">Position in the electrochemical series.</strong> This is almost completely limited to the position of metals and their ions and, of course, hydrogen and water. The obvious examples to include here are the electrolysis of dilute sodium hydroxide solution which behaves as 'water' (as hydrogen is evolved in preference to sodium) and the electrolysis of copper(II) sulfate solution with inert electrodes (where copper is deposited in preference to hydrogen ions gaining electrons). The position of negative ions is not really required by the IB as under normal conditions hydroxide ions will give up electrons in preference to other anions. The obvious example of this is the electrolysis of 'water' using dilute sulfuric acid. It is nice to see this using a Hofmann voltameter (right) although this particular piece of apparatus is not on the syllabus as such.<br><br><strong>Nature of the electrode.</strong> For the most part electrodes made of graphite or platinum are inert and play no part in the products. The classic examples where they do affect the products are the use of copper electrodes in the electrolysis of copper(II) sulfate and the now almost obsolete mercury cell once used in industry where a flowing cathode of mercury results in a sodium amalgam product.</p><p><strong>Concentration of the electrolyte.</strong> The classic example here is sodium chloride solution. For dilute solutions the products are almost exclusively hydrogen and oxygen but as the solution becomes more concentrated chlorine rather than oxygen is evolved at the positive electrode (anode) although a mixture containing both gases is actually formed. This is fertile ground for many a chemistry Extended Essay and could perhaps also be used for the individual scientific investigation.</p><p><strong>Relative amounts of products. </strong>This is the application of Faraday's Laws although the laws themselves are not required. What this does mean is required is the concept of connecting two electrolysis cells in series. This way the same amount of electricity must be passing through both cells and if the amount of one product is known the amount of other products can be deduced from their relevant half-equations.</p><p><strong>Electroplating.</strong> Examples here include the refining of copper using a small piece of pure copper as the negative electrode and impure copper the positive electrode (although the use of that lovely phrase 'anodic sludge' is not required) and plating with metals such as chromium where the object to be plated is made the negative electrode (cathode).</p><hr class="hidden"></div></div><hr class="hidden"><div class="yellowBg"><h2 id="header-8">Test your understanding of this topic</h2><p><em>(Note that your teacher may have restricted your access to some or all of these questions and worked answers if they are going to use them as a class test or set them as an assignment.)</em></p><hr class="hidden"><p>For ten 'quiz' multiple choice questions with the answers explained see <a href="../24742/mc-test-electrochemical-cells-ahl-1.html" title="Core & AHL » Teaching each topic & sub-topic » Topics 9 & 19 » Electrochemical cells (AHL) » MC test: Electrochemical cells (AHL)">MC test: Electrochemical cells (AHL)</a>.</p><p>For short-answer questions on voltaic cells see <a href="../41098/electrochemical-cells-1-ahl-questions-1.html" title="Core & AHL » Teaching each topic & sub-topic » Topics 9 & 19 » Electrochemical cells (AHL) » Electrochemical cells (1) (AHL) questions">Electrochemical cells (1) (AHL) questions</a> and for a second set of short-answer questions on electrolytic cells see <a href="../41099/electrochemical-cells-2-ahl-questions-1.html" title="Core & AHL » Teaching each topic & sub-topic » Topics 9 & 19 » Electrochemical cells (AHL) » Electrochemical cells (2) (AHL) questions">Electrochemical cells (2) (AHL) questions</a>.</p><hr class="hidden"></div><hr class="hidden"><div class="blueBg"><h3><strong>More resources</strong></h3><p><strong>1. </strong>A useful video describing the standard hydrogen electrode. Note however that although written on the screen there is no verbal inclusion of the need for the temperature to be 25 <sup>o</sup>C (298 K) for standard conditions. Also the hydrogen gas shown must actually be slightly higher than the required one atmosphere pressure as it bubbles out from below the surface of the solution.</p><p style="text-align: center;"><iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="280" src="//www.youtube.com/embed/qKSNzmggCeg?rel=0" width="360"></iframe></p><p style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://youtu.be/qKSNzmggCeg" target="_blank" title="Videos"><img class="ico" src="../../../img/icons/video-1.png"><span class="anchor" id="video-1" name="video-1"> </span> Standard electrode potential</a></p><hr class="hidden"><p><strong>2.</strong> A good video on the electrolysis of concentrated sodium chloride solution which explains it well.</p><p style="text-align: center;"><iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="280" src="//www.youtube.com/embed/58mFhu56-Hw?rel=0" width="360"></iframe></p><p style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://youtu.be/58mFhu56-Hw" target="_blank" title="Videos"><img class="ico" src="../../../img/icons/video-1.png"><span class="anchor" id="video-2" name="video-2"> </span> Electrolysis of NaCl(aq)</a></p><hr class="hidden"><p><strong>3.</strong> The electrolysis of 'water' using dilute sulfuric acid and a Hofmann voltameter. It clearly show the volume relationship and the identity of the two gases.</p><p style="text-align: center;"><iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="280" src="//www.youtube.com/embed/OTEX38bQ-2w?rel=0" width="360"></iframe></p><p style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://youtu.be/OTEX38bQ-2w" target="_blank" title="Videos"><img class="ico" src="../../../img/icons/video-1.png"><span class="anchor" id="video-3" name="video-3"> </span> Electrolysis of 'water'</a></p><hr class="hidden"><p style="text-align: center;"></p></div></section></article><section id="media-extras"><div class="page-actions no-print navbar inline hidden-desktop"><div class="navbar-inner"><ul class="nav"><li><a class="presentation" href="#" onclick="return false;"><i class="fa fa-desktop"></i></a></li><li><a class="print-section-blog" href="#" onclick="return false;"><i class="fa fa-print"></i></a></li><li><a class="page-bookmarker" data-ticket="IB Docs (2) Team" data-pid="28023" href="#" onclick="return false;"><i class="fa fa-star"></i></a></li><li><a class="personal-notes" href="#" onclick="return false;"><i class="fa fa-file-text"></i></a></li><li><a class="" data-toggle="modal" href="#modal-feedback" onclick="return false;"><i class="fa fa-envelope-o"></i></a></li><li class="dropdown"><a class="dropdown-toggle" data-toggle="dropdown" data-target="#" href="#"><i class="fa fa-share-alt"></i></a><ul class="dropdown-menu" role="menu"><li><a class="" target="_blank" title="Share on Twitter" href="https://twitter.com/share?text=%2219.1+Electrochemical+cells+%28AHL%29%22+-+via+%40InThinker+%23chemistry%0A&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thinkib.net%2Fchemistry%2Fpage%2F28023%2F191-electrochemical-cells-ahl"><i class="fa fa-twitter-square"></i><span>Twitter</span></a></li><li><a class="" target="_blank" title="Share on Facebook" href="https://www.facebook.com/sharer.php?u=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thinkib.net%2Fchemistry%2Fpage%2F28023%2F191-electrochemical-cells-ahl&t=19.1+Electrochemical+cells+(AHL)"><i class="fa fa-facebook-square"></i><span>Facebook</span></a></li><li><a class="" href="http://www.linkedin.com/shareArticle?mini=true&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thinkib.net%2Fchemistry%2Fpage%2F28023%2F191-electrochemical-cells-ahl"><i class="fa fa-linkedin-square"></i><span>LinkedIn</span></a></li><li><a class="" href="https://plus.google.com/share?url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thinkib.net%2Fchemistry%2Fpage%2F28023%2F191-electrochemical-cells-ahl"><i class="fa fa-google-plus-square"></i><span>Google +</span></a></li><li><a class="" href="mailto:?subject=19.1 Electrochemical cells (AHL)&body=Written specifically for students to provide help and support for the IB Diploma chemistry programme this page provides full coverage of the syllabus content of Topic 19.1 Electrochemical cells (AHL). 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