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<title>DP Chemistry: Electrochemical cells (AHL) </title>
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class="father">Incorporating IM, TOK, 'Utilization' etc.</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../16414/topic-1-1.html">Topic 1</a></li><li><a href="../16916/topics-2-12-1.html">Topics 2 & 12</a></li><li><a href="../17023/topics-3-13--1.html">Topics 3 & 13 </a></li><li><a href="../17055/topics-4-14--1.html">Topics 4 & 14 </a></li><li><a href="../17270/topics-5-15--1.html">Topics 5 & 15 </a></li><li><a href="../17854/topics-6-16--1.html">Topics 6 & 16 </a></li><li><a href="../18041/topics-7-17--1.html">Topics 7 & 17 </a></li><li><a href="../18099/topics-8-18-1.html">Topics 8 & 18</a></li><li><a href="../18349/topics-9-19--1.html">Topics 9 & 19 </a></li><li><a href="../18420/topics-10-20-1.html">Topics 10 & 20</a></li><li><a href="../17269/topics-11-21--1.html">Topics 11 & 21 </a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../17866/utilization-relationships-between-topics--1.html" class="father">'Utilization' - Relationships between topics </a><ul class="level-2"><li><a 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science </a></li><li><a href="../19519/metals-and-icp-spectroscopy-1.html">Metals and ICP spectroscopy</a></li><li><a href="../19541/catalysts--1.html">Catalysts </a></li><li><a href="../19580/liquid-crystals-1.html">Liquid crystals</a></li><li><a href="../19665/polymers--1.html">Polymers </a></li><li><a href="../19672/nanotechnology-1.html">Nanotechnology</a></li><li><a href="../19843/environmental-impact-plastics-1.html">Environmental impact - plastics</a></li><li><a href="../19858/superconducting-metals-x-ray-crystallography--1.html">Superconducting metals & X-ray crystallography </a></li><li><a href="../19666/condensation-polymers-1.html">Condensation polymers</a></li><li><a href="../19916/environmental-impact-heavy-metals-1.html">Environmental impact - heavy metals</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../19284/option-b--1.html" class="father">Option B </a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../19290/introduction-to-biochemistry--1.html">Introduction to biochemistry </a></li><li><a href="../19287/proteins-enzymes--1.html">Proteins & enzymes </a></li><li><a href="../19291/lipids-1.html">Lipids</a></li><li><a href="../19299/carbohydrates--1.html">Carbohydrates </a></li><li><a href="../19305/vitamins--1.html">Vitamins </a></li><li><a href="../19313/biochemistry-the-environment--1.html">Biochemistry & the environment </a></li><li><a href="../19336/proteins-enzymes-ahl--1.html">Proteins & enzymes (AHL) </a></li><li><a href="../19347/nucleic-acids--1.html">Nucleic acids </a></li><li><a href="../19361/biological-pigments--1.html">Biological pigments </a></li><li><a href="../19366/stereochemistry-in-biomolecules-1.html">Stereochemistry in biomolecules</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../19390/option-c--1.html" class="father">Option C </a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../19391/energy-sources-1.html">Energy sources</a></li><li><a href="../19407/fossil-fuels-1.html">Fossil fuels</a></li><li><a href="../19411/nuclear-fusion-nuclear-fission-reactions-1.html">Nuclear fusion & nuclear fission reactions</a></li><li><a href="../19429/solar-energy-1.html">Solar energy</a></li><li><a href="../19437/environmental-impact-global-warming-1.html">Environmental impact - global warming</a></li><li><a href="../19453/electrochemistry-rechargeable-batteries-fuel-cells-1.html">Electrochemistry, rechargeable batteries & fuel cells</a></li><li><a href="../19458/nuclear-fusion-fission-hl--1.html">Nuclear fusion & fission (HL) </a></li><li><a href="../19470/photovoltaic-cells-and-dsscs-1.html">Photovoltaic cells and DSSCs</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../19078/option-d-1.html" class="father">Option D</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../19079/pharmaceutical-products-drug-action--1.html">Pharmaceutical products & drug action </a></li><li><a href="../19158/aspirin-penicillin--1.html">Aspirin & penicillin </a></li><li><a href="../19174/opiates-1.html">Opiates</a></li><li><a href="../19184/ph-regulation-of-the-stomach-1.html">pH regulation of the stomach</a></li><li><a href="../19194/antiviral-medications--1.html">Antiviral medications </a></li><li><a href="../19211/environmental-impact-of-some-medications-1.html">Environmental impact of some medications</a></li><li><a href="../19254/taxol-a-chiral-auxiliary-case-study-1.html">Taxol - a chiral auxiliary case study</a></li><li><a href="../19258/nuclear-medicine--1.html">Nuclear medicine </a></li><li><a href="../19273/drug-detection-analysis--1.html">Drug detection & analysis </a></li></ul></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16592/practical-scheme-of-work-ia--1.html">Practical scheme of work & IA </a><ul class="level-1"><li><a href="../16682/internal-assessment-1.html" class="father">Internal Assessment</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../18892/scaffolding-the-investigation-1.html">'Scaffolding' the investigation</a></li><li><a href="../18896/timing-organisation--1.html">Timing & organisation </a></li><li><a href="../18905/choosing-the-research-question-1.html">Choosing the research question</a></li><li><a href="../18946/personal-engagement-1.html">Personal engagement</a></li><li><a href="../18950/exploration-1.html">Exploration</a></li><li><a href="../18957/analysis-1.html">Analysis</a></li><li><a href="../18965/evaluation-1.html">Evaluation</a></li><li><a href="../18966/communication-1.html">Communication</a></li><li><a href="../19882/internal-standardization-of-the-ia-1.html">Internal standardization of the IA</a></li><li><a href="../19901/submitting-the-samples-for-moderation-2.html">Submitting the samples for moderation</a></li><li><a href="../33754/ten-suggestions-for-ias-using-secondary-data-1.html">Ten suggestions for IAs using secondary data</a></li><li><a href="../37544/gaining-full-marks-for-a-databased-ia--1.html">Gaining full marks for a databased IA </a></li><li><a href="../19506/ia-example-marking-exercise--1.html">IA example & marking exercise </a></li><li><a href="../23929/genuine-examples-of-moderated-ia-reports-1.html">Genuine examples of moderated IA reports</a></li><li><a href="../25234/examples-of-teacher-marked-ia-reports--1.html">Examples of teacher-marked IA reports </a></li><li><a href="../37542/history-of-internal-assessment-1.html">History of Internal Assessment</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16598/mandatory-laboratory-components-1.html" class="father">Mandatory laboratory components</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../16613/formula-of-magnesium-oxide--1.html">Formula of magnesium oxide </a></li><li><a href="../16612/determining-the-mr-of-an-unknown-gas-1.html">Determining the <i>M</i><sub>r</sub> of an unknown gas</a></li><li><a href="../16615/acid-base-titrations--1.html">Acid-base titrations </a></li><li><a href="../16616/a-green-acid-base-practical-1.html">A green acid-base practical</a></li><li><a href="../16617/analysis-of-aspirin-tablets-1.html">Analysis of aspirin tablets</a></li><li><a href="../16618/caco3-in-egg-shells-1.html">CaCO<sub>3</sub> in egg shells</a></li><li><a href="../16644/enthalpy-changes-1.html">Enthalpy changes</a></li><li><a href="../16631/reaction-rates-1.html">Reaction rates</a></li><li><a href="../16635/rate-dependent-factors-1.html">Rate-dependent factors</a></li><li><a href="../16636/determining-ea-for-a-reaction-1.html">Determining <i>E</i><sub>a</sub> for a reaction</a></li><li><a href="../16637/iodination-of-propanone-1.html">Iodination of propanone</a></li><li><a href="../18144/titrations-with-a-ph-meter-1.html">Titrations with a pH meter</a></li><li><a href="../18355/redox-titration-with-kmno4--1.html">Redox titration with KMnO<sub>4</sub> </a></li><li><a href="../16640/voltaic-cells-1.html">Voltaic cells</a></li><li><a href="../16659/3-d-molecular-modelling--1.html">3-D molecular modelling </a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../17168/other-good-practicals-1.html" class="father">Other good practicals</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../17196/common-chemical-reactions-1.html">Common chemical reactions</a></li><li><a href="../227/elements-oxides-of-the-third-period--1.html">Elements & oxides of the third period </a></li><li><a href="../17239/the-halogens-1.html">The halogens</a></li><li><a href="../17162/boiling-points-of-mixtures-1.html">Boiling points of mixtures</a></li><li><a href="../17170/polarity-of-molecules-1.html">Polarity of molecules</a></li><li><a href="../18083/le-chateliers-principle--1.html">Le Chatelier's principle </a></li><li><a href="../19582/determining-kc-for-an-esterification-reaction-1.html">Determining <i>K</i><sub>c</sub> for an esterification reaction</a></li><li><a href="../18164/redox-reactions-of-vanadium--1.html">Redox reactions of vanadium </a></li><li><a href="../18351/chlorine-in-swimming-pools--1.html">Chlorine in swimming pools </a></li><li><a href="../18178/analysis-of-cuii-ions-in-solution--1.html">Analysis of Cu(II) ions in solution </a></li><li><a href="../18179/percentage-of-copper-in-brass-1.html">Percentage of copper in brass</a></li><li><a href="../18356/electrolytic-cells--1.html">Electrolytic cells </a></li><li><a href="../18598/reactions-of-organic-compounds-1.html">Reactions of organic compounds</a></li><li><a href="../18752/hydrolysis-of-halogenoalkanes-1.html">Hydrolysis of halogenoalkanes</a></li><li><a href="../18784/preparation-of-13-dinitrobenzene--1.html">Preparation of 1,3-dinitrobenzene </a></li><li><a href="../19022/determination-of-an-organic-structure-1.html">Determination of an organic structure</a></li><li><a href="../19887/preparation-of-nylon-66-1.html">Preparation of nylon 6,6</a></li><li><a href="../19343/determination-of-vitamin-c-content--1.html">Determination of vitamin C content </a></li><li><a href="../19342/hydrolysis-of-starch--1.html">Hydrolysis of starch </a></li><li><a href="../19159/preparation-purification-of-aspirin--1.html">Preparation & purification of aspirin </a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../18851/ict-in-practical-work-1.html" class="father">ICT in practical work</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../18852/data-logging--1.html">Data logging </a></li><li><a href="../18853/software-for-graph-plotting--1.html">Software for graph plotting </a></li><li><a href="../18854/spreadsheets-for-data-processing--1.html">Spreadsheets for data processing </a></li><li><a href="../18855/databases-1.html">Databases</a></li><li><a href="../18856/computer-modelling-simulations--1.html">Computer modelling & simulations </a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16594/group-4-project-1.html" class="father">Group 4 Project</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../16595/practicalities-1.html">Practicalities</a></li><li><a href="../16596/reflective-statement--2.html">Reflective statement </a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16666/a-new-laboratory-1.html">A new laboratory?</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16284/exams-1.html">Exams</a><ul class="level-1"><li><a href="../16286/essential-facts-1.html" class="father">Essential Facts</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../16287/objectives-command-terms-1.html">Objectives & command terms</a></li><li><a href="../16288/grade-descriptors-1.html">Grade descriptors</a></li><li><a href="../16289/grade-boundaries-1.html">Grade boundaries</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16302/paper-1-multiple-choice-1.html" class="father">Paper 1 (Multiple Choice)</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../16303/advice-to-students-paper-1-1.html">Advice to students (Paper 1)</a></li><li><a href="../31515/practice-paper-1-exams-1.html">Practice Paper 1 exams</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16305/paper-2-1.html" class="father">Paper 2</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../16306/advice-to-students-paper-2-1.html">Advice to students (Paper 2)</a></li><li><a href="../16307/areas-of-difficulty-1.html">Areas of difficulty</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16313/paper-3--1.html" class="father">Paper 3 </a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../16314/advice-to-students-paper-3-1.html">Advice to students (Paper 3)</a></li><li><a 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href="../3147/ib-core-1.html">IB Core</a><ul class="level-1"><li><a href="../3149/learner-profile-1.html">Learner Profile</a></li><li><a href="../21735/extended-essays--1.html" class="father">Extended Essays </a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../21736/overview--1.html">Overview </a></li><li><a href="../21780/responsibilities-1.html">Responsibilities</a></li><li><a href="../21790/resources-1.html">Resources</a></li><li><a href="../21800/research-1.html">Research</a></li><li><a href="../21804/writing-the-essay-1.html">Writing the essay</a></li><li><a href="../21810/assessment-1.html">Assessment</a></li><li><a href="../22434/summary-of-advice--1.html">Summary of advice </a></li><li><a href="../25272/faqs--1.html">FAQs </a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../307/theory-of-knowledge-tok-1.html" class="father">Theory of Knowledge (TOK)</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../41171/the-12-tok-concepts-1.html">The 12 TOK concepts</a></li><li><a href="../3507/why-tok-chemistry-1.html">Why TOK & Chemistry?</a></li><li><a href="../3505/a-modern-paradigm-1.html">A modern paradigm</a></li></ul></li></ul></li><li><a href="../17783/fast-track-to-tests-questions-1.html">Fast track to tests & questions</a><ul class="level-1"><li><a href="../17784/sl-multiple-choice-tests-on-individual-topics-1.html">SL Multiple choice tests on individual topics</a></li><li><a href="../24351/sl-multiple-choice-quizzes-on-sub-topics-1.html">SL Multiple choice 'quizzes' on sub-topics</a></li><li><a href="../31519/sl-practice-paper-1-exams-1.html">SL Practice Paper 1 exams</a></li><li><a href="../17786/sl-questions-on-each-sub-topic-1.html">SL Questions on each sub-topic</a></li><li><a href="../20431/sl-paper-3-section-a-questions-1.html">SL Paper 3 Section A questions</a></li><li><a href="../17792/sl-questions-on-the-options-1.html">SL Questions on the options</a></li><li><a href="../24897/sl-quizzes-on-option-sub-topics--1.html">SL Quizzes on option sub-topics </a></li><li><a href="../17785/hl-multiple-choice-tests-on-individual-topics-1.html">HL Multiple choice tests on individual topics</a></li><li><a href="../24352/hl-multiple-choice-quizzes-on-sub-topics-1.html">HL Multiple choice 'quizzes' on sub-topics</a></li><li><a href="../31520/hl-practice-paper-1-exams--1.html">HL Practice Paper 1 exams </a></li><li><a href="../17787/hl-questions-on-each-sub-topic--1.html">HL Questions on each sub-topic </a></li><li><a href="../20428/hl-paper-3-section-a-questions-1.html">HL Paper 3 Section A questions</a></li><li><a href="../17793/hl-questions-on-the-options-1.html">HL Questions on the options</a></li><li><a href="../24973/hl-quizzes-on-option-sub-topics-1.html">HL Quizzes on option sub-topics</a></li><li><a href="../41573/printable-versions-of-written-tasks--1.html">Printable versions of written tasks </a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../41465/complete-course-for-students--2.html">Complete course for students </a><ul class="level-1"><li><a 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style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18038/topics-7-17--1.html" title="Topics 7 & 17 ">Topics 7 & 17 </a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18040/equilibrium--1.html" title="Equilibrium ">Equilibrium </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24656/mc-test-equilibrium-1.html" title="MC test: Equilibrium">MC test: Equilibrium</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../40959/equilibrium-questions-1.html" title="Equilibrium questions">Equilibrium questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18091/equilibrium-law--1.html" title="Equilibrium law ">Equilibrium law </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i 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test: Theories of acids & bases</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../40963/theories-of-acids-bases-questions-1.html" title="Theories of acids & bases questions">Theories of acids & bases questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18126/properties-of-acids-bases-1.html" title="Properties of acids & bases">Properties of acids & bases</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24663/mc-test-properties-of-acids-bases--1.html" title="MC test: Properties of acids & bases ">MC test: Properties of acids & bases </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../40964/properties-of-acids-bases-questions-1.html" title="Properties of acids & bases questions">Properties of acids & bases questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18140/ph-scale-1.html" title="pH scale">pH scale</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24668/mc-test-the-ph-scale-1.html" title="MC test: The pH scale">MC test: The pH scale</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../40971/ph-scale-questions-1.html" title="pH scale questions">pH scale questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18152/strong-weak-acids-bases-1.html" title="Strong & weak acids & bases">Strong & weak acids & bases</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24670/mc-test-strong-weak-acids-bases-1.html" title="MC test: Strong & weak acids & bases">MC test: Strong & weak acids & bases</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../40972/strong-weak-acid-bases-questions-1.html" title="Strong & weak acid & bases questions">Strong & weak acid & bases questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18156/acid-deposition-1.html" title="Acid deposition">Acid deposition</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24674/mc-test-acid-deposition-1.html" title="MC test: Acid deposition">MC test: Acid deposition</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../40983/acid-deposition-questions-1.html" title="Acid deposition questions">Acid deposition questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18160/lewis-acids-bases-1.html" title="Lewis acids & bases">Lewis acids & bases</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24710/mc-test-lewis-acids-bases-1.html" title="MC test: Lewis acids & bases">MC test: Lewis acids & bases</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../40986/lewis-acids-bases-questions-1.html" title="Lewis acids & bases questions">Lewis acids & bases questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18250/acid-base-calculations-1.html" title="Acid base calculations">Acid base calculations</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24714/mc-test-calculations-involving-acids-bases--1.html" title="MC test: Calculations involving acids & bases ">MC test: Calculations involving acids & bases </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../40988/acid-base-calculations-questions--1.html" title="Acid-base calculations questions ">Acid-base calculations questions </a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../26161/ph-titration-curves-1.html" title="pH titration curves">pH titration curves</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../26158/mc-test-ph-curves-1.html" title="MC test: pH curves">MC test: pH curves</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41000/ph-curves-questions--1.html" title="pH curves questions ">pH curves questions </a></li></ul></ul><li class="ancestor parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right fa-rotate-90"></i><a href="../18350/topics-9-19-1.html" title="Topics 9 & 19">Topics 9 & 19</a></li><ul class="level-2 expanded"><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18365/oxidation-reduction-1.html" title="Oxidation & reduction">Oxidation & reduction</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24725/mc-test-oxidation-reduction-1.html" title="MC test: Oxidation & reduction">MC test: Oxidation & reduction</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41033/oxidation-reduction-questions-1--1.html" title="Oxidation & reduction questions (1) ">Oxidation & reduction questions (1) </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41034/oxidation-reduction-questions-2-1.html" title="Oxidation & reduction questions (2)">Oxidation & reduction questions (2)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa 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title="Electrochemical cells (AHL) ">Electrochemical cells (AHL) </a></li><ul class="level-3 expanded"><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24742/mc-test-electrochemical-cells-ahl-1.html" title="MC test: Electrochemical cells (AHL)">MC test: Electrochemical cells (AHL)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41098/electrochemical-cells-1-ahl-questions-1.html" title="Electrochemical cells (1) (AHL) questions">Electrochemical cells (1) (AHL) questions</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41099/electrochemical-cells-2-ahl-questions-1.html" title="Electrochemical cells (2) (AHL) questions">Electrochemical cells (2) (AHL) questions</a></li></ul></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18475/topics-10-20--1.html" title="Topics 10 & 20 ">Topics 10 & 20 </a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18497/fundamentals-of-organic-chemistry--1.html" title="Fundamentals of organic chemistry ">Fundamentals of organic chemistry </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24749/mc-test-fundamentals-of-organic-chemistry-1.html" title="MC test: Fundamentals of organic chemistry">MC test: Fundamentals of organic chemistry</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41111/fundamentals-of-organic-chemistry-1-questions-1.html" title="Fundamentals of organic chemistry (1) questions">Fundamentals of organic chemistry (1) questions</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41112/fundamentals-of-organic-chemistry-2-questions-1.html" title="Fundamentals of organic chemistry (2) questions">Fundamentals of organic chemistry (2) questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18597/alkanes-alkenes-addition-polymers-1.html" title="Alkanes, alkenes & addition polymers">Alkanes, alkenes & addition polymers</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24750/mc-test-alkanes-alkenes-addition-polymers-1.html" title="MC test: Alkanes, alkenes & addition polymers">MC test: Alkanes, alkenes & addition polymers</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41121/alkanes-questions-1.html" title="Alkanes questions">Alkanes questions</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41124/alkenes-questions-1.html" title="Alkenes questions">Alkenes questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18741/alcohols--1.html" title="Alcohols ">Alcohols </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24772/mc-test-alcohols-1.html" title="MC test: Alcohols">MC test: Alcohols</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41125/alcohols-questions-1.html" title="Alcohols questions">Alcohols questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18742/halogenoalkanes-benzene--1.html" title="Halogenoalkanes & benzene ">Halogenoalkanes & benzene </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24797/mc-test-halogenoalkanes-benzene-1.html" title="MC test: Halogenoalkanes & benzene">MC test: Halogenoalkanes & benzene</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41130/halogenoalkanes-benzene-questions-1.html" title="Halogenoalkanes & benzene questions">Halogenoalkanes & benzene questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18762/nucleophilic-substitution--1.html" title="Nucleophilic substitution ">Nucleophilic substitution </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24757/mc-test-nucleophilic-substitution-1.html" title="MC test: Nucleophilic substitution">MC test: Nucleophilic substitution</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41138/nucleophilic-substitution-questions-1.html" title="Nucleophilic substitution questions">Nucleophilic substitution questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18766/electrophilic-addition--1.html" title="Electrophilic addition ">Electrophilic addition </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24805/mc-test-electrophilic-addition-electrophilic-substitution-reacti-2.html" title="MC test: Electrophilic addition & electrophilic substitution reactions">MC test: Electrophilic addition & electrophilic substitution reactions</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41148/electrophilic-addition-questions-1.html" title="Electrophilic addition questions">Electrophilic addition questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18780/electrophilic-substitution--2.html" title="Electrophilic substitution ">Electrophilic substitution </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41149/electrophilic-substitution-questions-1.html" title="Electrophilic substitution questions">Electrophilic substitution questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18793/reduction-reactions--1.html" title="Reduction reactions ">Reduction reactions </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24811/mc-test-reduction-reactions-1.html" title="MC test: Reduction reactions">MC test: Reduction reactions</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41150/reduction-reactions-questions-1.html" title="Reduction reactions questions">Reduction reactions questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18797/synthetic-routes--1.html" title="Synthetic routes ">Synthetic routes </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24822/mc-test-synthetic-routes-1.html" title="MC test: Synthetic routes">MC test: Synthetic routes</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41152/synthetic-routes-questions--1.html" title="Synthetic routes questions ">Synthetic routes questions </a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18844/stereoisomerism--1.html" title="Stereoisomerism ">Stereoisomerism </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24817/mc-test-stereoisomerism-1.html" title="MC test: Stereoisomerism">MC test: Stereoisomerism</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41166/stereoisomerism-questions-1.html" title="Stereoisomerism questions">Stereoisomerism questions</a></li></ul></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../17285/topics-11-21--1.html" title="Topics 11 & 21 ">Topics 11 & 21 </a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../17276/uncertainty-errors--1.html" title="Uncertainty & errors ">Uncertainty & errors </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24818/mc-test-uncertainties-errors-1.html" title="MC test: Uncertainties & errors">MC test: Uncertainties & errors</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../38869/uncertainty-error-questions--1.html" title="Uncertainty & error questions ">Uncertainty & error questions </a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../15014/graphical-techniques-1.html" title="Graphical techniques">Graphical techniques</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24819/mc-test-graphical-techniques-1.html" title="MC test: Graphical techniques">MC test: Graphical techniques</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39387/graphical-techniques-questions--1.html" title="Graphical techniques questions ">Graphical techniques questions </a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18968/spectroscopic-identification-of-organic-compounds-1.html" title="Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds">Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24820/mc-test-spectroscopic-identification-of-organic-compounds--1.html" title="MC test: Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds ">MC test: Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39388/index-of-hydrogen-deficiency-questions-1.html" title="Index of hydrogen deficiency questions">Index of hydrogen deficiency questions</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39351/identification-from-spectra-question-1-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 1">Identification from spectra - Question 1</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39353/identification-from-spectra-question-2-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 2">Identification from spectra - Question 2</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39354/identification-from-spectra-question-3-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 3">Identification from spectra - Question 3</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39355/identification-from-spectra-question-4-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 4">Identification from spectra - Question 4</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39356/identification-from-spectra-question-5-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 5">Identification from spectra - Question 5</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39357/identification-from-spectra-question-6-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 6">Identification from spectra - Question 6</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39358/identification-from-spectra-question-7-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 7">Identification from spectra - Question 7</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39359/identification-from-spectra-question-8-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 8">Identification from spectra - Question 8</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39360/identification-from-spectra-question-9-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 9">Identification from spectra - Question 9</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39361/identification-from-spectra-question-10-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 10">Identification from spectra - Question 10</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../19027/spectroscopic-identification-of-organic-compounds-ahl--1.html" title="Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds (AHL) ">Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds (AHL) </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24821/mc-test-spectroscopic-identification-of-organic-compounds-ahl-1.html" title="MC test: Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds (AHL)">MC test: Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds (AHL)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39375/identification-from-spectra-question-11-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 11">Identification from spectra - Question 11</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39376/identification-from-spectra-question-12-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 12">Identification from spectra - Question 12</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39377/identification-from-spectra-question-13-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 13">Identification from spectra - Question 13</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39378/identification-from-spectra-question-14-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 14">Identification from spectra - Question 14</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39379/identification-from-spectra-question-15-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 15">Identification from spectra - Question 15</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a 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href="../39385/identification-from-spectra-question-20-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 20">Identification from spectra - Question 20</a></li></ul></ul></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 0px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../16441/the-nature-of-science-1.html" title="The Nature of Science">The Nature of Science</a></li><ul class="level-1 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../16450/key-terms-concepts-1.html" title="Key terms & concepts">Key terms & concepts</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../34566/nos-critical-thinking-1.html" title="NOS & Critical Thinking">NOS & Critical Thinking</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../32100/how-the-elements-were-named-1.html" title="How the elements were named">How the elements were named</a></li><li class="" 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Voltaic cells and standard electrode potentialsThis topic causes students considerable difficulty when they come to answer questions on standard electrode potentials in Paper 2. 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</div><section id="main-content"><div id="toc-1672972930" class="toc"><a href="#" class="toc-switcher" title="Show table of contents"><small><i class="fa fa-reorder"></i> Table of contents <span class="pull-right"><i class="fa fa-chevron-down"></i></span></small></a></div><h1><img class="ico" src="../../../img/icons/higher-1.png"> 19.1 Electrochemical cells (6 hours)</h1><div class="pinkBg"><div><h2>Pause for thought</h2><p><strong>1. Voltaic cells and standard electrode potentials</strong></p><p>This topic causes students considerable difficulty when they come to answer questions on standard electrode potentials in Paper 2. It is also a topic that many teachers seem to find difficult - maybe there is some relationship between these two statements? The problem seems to stem from what is meant by "standard electrode potential". It could be that the IB data booklet does not help. For example, the lithium half-cell at the top of the electrochemical series in Section 24 of the data booklet appears as:</p><hr class="hidden"><p style="text-align: center;"><img alt="" class="noborder" src="../../../ib/chemistry/images/2014%20Core%20%26%20AHL/Topics-9--19/Section-24-start-of-table-copy.png" style="width: 440px; height: 110px;" title="Taken from the IB data booklet for first exams 2016"></p><hr class="hidden"><p>Because of the way it is written students (and possibly teachers too) confuse this with an energetics equation and think that if they write the equation the other way round then <em>E</em><img class="ico" src="../../../img/icons/underground.png"> will be equal to + 3.04 V. This is the wrong way of looking at standard electrode potentials. It is better to consider the half-cell as lithium metal in contact with lithium ions, i.e. Li(s)/Li<sup>+</sup>(aq), and when this is connected to a standard hydrogen electrode the minus sign means that electrons will flow from this half-cell to the hydrogen half-cell and the voltage will be 3.04 V. The electrochemical series is simply a list of what happens when all the half-cells in question are connected in turn to a hydrogen half-cell. The <strong>only</strong> concept that is key to remember is that when any two half-cells are connected together to give a spontaneous reaction the electrons will flow <strong>from</strong> the more <strong>negative</strong> half-cell <strong>to</strong> the more <strong>positive </strong>half-cell and the difference between the two values will be the EMF (cell potential) for that cell.</p><hr class="hidden"><p>Let's look at one example to illustrate this. What will happen spontaneously when an Fe<sup>2</sup><sup>+</sup>(aq)/Fe<sup>3</sup><sup>+</sup>(aq) half-cell is connected to an iodine half-cell, ½I<sub>2</sub>(s)/I<sup>–</sup>(aq)?</p><p>To solve this problem draw the cell diagram and write the E<img class="ico" src="../../../img/icons/underground.png"> values from the data booklet under the relevant half-cells:</p><p style="text-align: center;"><br>½I<sub>2</sub>(s)/I<sup>−</sup>(aq) || Fe<sup>2</sup><sup>+</sup>(aq)/Fe<sup>3</sup><sup>+</sup>(aq)<br>+ 0.54 V + 0.77 V</p><p>The more negative (actually the least positive) is the iodine half-cell so the electrons will flow from this half-cell to the Fe<sup>2</sup><sup>+</sup>(aq)/Fe<sup>3</sup><sup>+</sup>(aq) half-cell. That is, the iodine half-cell will lose electrons and the iron ion half-cell will gain electrons so the two half-equations will be:</p><p>Fe<sup>3</sup><sup>+</sup>(aq) + e<sup>–</sup> → Fe<sup>2</sup><sup>+</sup>(aq)<br>2I<sup>–</sup>aq) → I<sub>2</sub>(s) + 2e<sup>–</sup></p><p>So the overall spontaneous reaction is that iron(III) ions will oxidize iodide ions to iodine. The total cell potential (EMF) for this reaction will be 0.23 V.</p><p>2Fe<sup>3</sup><sup>+</sup>(aq) + 2I<sup>–</sup>aq) → I<sub>2</sub>(s) + 2Fe<sup>2</sup><sup>+</sup>(aq) <em>E</em><img class="ico" src="../../../img/icons/underground.png"><sub>cell</sub> = 0.23 V</p><p>A similar question could be asked a different way. Will iron(III) ions oxidise bromide ions to bromine? Solve it the same way. Write the two half-cells, look up their standard electrode potentials and then determine which will be the spontaneous reaction.</p><p style="text-align: center;">Fe<sup>2</sup><sup>+</sup>(aq)/Fe<sup>3</sup><sup>+</sup>(aq) || ½Br<sub>2</sub>(l)/Br<sup>–</sup>(aq)<br>+ 0.77 V + 1.07 V</p><p>Now the iron ion half-cell has the more negative (less positive) value so the electrons flow from this half-cell to the bromine half-cell. The half-equations for the spontaneous reactions become:</p><p>Fe<sup>2</sup><sup>+</sup>(aq) → Fe<sup>3</sup><sup>+</sup>(aq) + e<sup>–</sup><br>Br<sub>2</sub>(l) + 2e<sup>–</sup><sup> </sup> → 2Br<sup>–</sup>aq)</p><p>The overall equation for the spontaneous reaction will be:</p><p>2Fe<sup>2</sup><sup>+</sup>(aq) + Br<sub>2</sub>(l) <sup> </sup> → 2Br<sup>–</sup>(aq) + 2Fe<sup>3</sup><sup>+</sup>(aq) <em>E</em><img class="ico" src="../../../img/icons/underground.png"><sub>cell</sub> = 0.30 V</p><p>What this tells us is that iron(III) ions will not spontaneously oxidize bromide ions to bromine. In fact bromine will spontaneously oxidize iron(II) ions to iron(III) ions.</p><p>If all this is understood students will be able to answer any questions thrown at them on the use of standard electrode potentials. I have written a <a href="../16310/using-electrode-potentials.html" title="New 2014 programme (First exams 2016) » Exams » Paper 2 » Areas of difficulty » Using electrode potentials">separate page</a> under Areas of difficulty for Paper 2 which gives some more examples.</p><hr class="hidden"><p>One question that students sometimes ask which you may find difficult to answer is how the standard electrode potential of very reactive metals like sodium can be determined. You might find it interesting to read a <a href="/media/ib/chemistry/files/Topics/Redox/How%20Eo%20for%20Na%20is%20obtained.pdf">research paper written by Edgar Reynolds Smith and John Keenan Taylor in 1940</a> which details how they obtained the value for the sodium half-cell. Essentially they make use of an indirect method which depends on firstly measuring the potential of dilute sodium amalgam with respect to an aqueous solution of its ions and a reference electrode, and secondly, the difference in potential between the sodium amalgam and the pure metal when both are immersed in a non-aqueous conducting solution containing sodium ions. This non-aqueous solvent must not react with sodium and must dissolve the alkali salt sufficiently to form an electrolytic solution.</p><hr class="hidden"><p><strong>2. Electrolysis of aqueous solutions</strong></p><p>This is quite a difficult topic to teach well. The trick is to understand that only certain examples are required to illustrate the various factors that affect the products (and their amounts) produced during electrolysis.</p><p><strong><img alt="" class="noborder right" height="448" src="../../../ib/chemistry/images/Core%20and%20AHL/redox/HOFFMANN_VOLTAMETER.jpg" title="Hofmann voltameter" width="240">Position in the electrochemical series.</strong> This is almost completely limited to the position of metals and their ions and, of course, hydrogen and water. The obvious examples to include here are the electrolysis of dilute sodium hydroxide solution which behaves as 'water' (as hydrogen is evolved in preference to sodium) and the electrolysis of copper(II) sulfate solution with inert electrodes (where copper is deposited in preference to hydrogen ions gaining electrons). The position of negative ions is not really required by the IB as under normal conditions hydroxide ions will give up electrons in preference to other anions. The obvious example of this is the electrolysis of 'water' using dilute sulfuric acid. It is nice to show this using a Hofmann voltameter (right) although this particular piece of apparatus is not on the syllabus as such.<br><br><strong>Nature of the electrode.</strong> For the most part electrodes made of graphite or platinum are inert and play no part in the products. The classic examples where they do affect the products are the use of copper electrodes in the electrolysis of copper(II) sulfate and the now almost obsolete mercury cell once used in industry where a flowing cathode of mercury results in a sodium amalgam product.</p><p><strong>Concentration of the electrolyte.</strong> The classic example here is sodium chloride solution. For dilute solutions the products are almost exclusively hydrogen and oxygen but as the solution becomes more concentrated chlorine rather than oxygen is evolved at the positive electrode (anode) although a mixture containing both gases is actually formed. This is fertile ground for many a chemistry Extended Essay and could perhaps also be used for the individual scientific investigation.</p><p><strong>Relative amounts of products. </strong>This is the application of Faraday's Laws although the laws themselves are not required. What this does mean is required is the concept of connecting two electrolysis cells in series. This way the same amount of electricity must be passing through both cells and if the amount of one product is known the amount of other products can be deduced from their relevant half-equations.</p><p><strong>Electroplating.</strong> Examples here include the refining of copper using a small piece of pure copper as the negative electrode and impure copper the positive electrode (although the use of that lovely phrase 'anodic sludge' is not required) and plating with metals such as chromium where the object to be plated is made the negative electrode (cathode).</p><hr class="hidden"></div></div><hr class="hidden"><div class="box"><h2>Nature of science</h2><p>The use of standard electrode potentials, whose values are all relative to the standard hydrogen electrode, provides a good example of quantitative reasoning in science.</p><div title="Page 104"><div><div><div><p>Scientists working together on electrochemical cell technologies, where they have had to consider the environmental and ethical implications of using fuel cells and microbial fuel cells, provides a good example of collaboration and ethical implications.</p><hr class="hidden"></div></div></div></div></div><hr class="hidden"><div class="box"><table align="left" border="0" cellpadding="10" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td style="width: 50%;" valign="top"><div class="yellowBg"><div><h2><strong><strong>Learning outcomes</strong></strong></h2><p>After studying this topic students should be able to:</p><p><strong><strong>Understand</strong></strong></p><div title="Page 104"><div><div><div><ul><li>Voltaic cells generate an electromotive force, EMF, resulting in the movement of electrons from the negative electrode (anode) to the positive electrode (cathode) through the external circuit. This EMF is known as the cell potential, <em>E</em><sup>⦵</sup>.</li><li>The standard hydrogen electrode, SHE, consists of an inert platinum electrode in a 1 mol dm<sup>-3</sup> aqueous solution of hydrogen ions and in contact with hydrogen gas at 100 kPa and 298 K. <em>E</em><sup>⦵</sup> for the SHE is assigned the value of 0 Volts.</li><li>The standard electrode potential, <em>E</em><sup>⦵</sup>, of any half-cell is the potential (in volts) of the reduction half-equation under standard conditions (1.0 mol dm<sup>-3</sup> concentration for solutions or 100 kPa for gases) measured relative to the SHE at 298 K.</li><li>When aqueous solutions are electrolysed, water can be oxidized to oxygen at the positive electrode (anode) and reduced to hydrogen at the negative electrode (cathode).</li><li><p>Δ<em>G</em><sup>⦵</sup><sup> </sup>= − <em>nFE</em><sup>⦵</sup><br>When <em>E</em><sup>⦵</sup> is positive, Δ<em>G</em><sup>⦵</sup> is negative and the process is spontaneous. When <em>E</em><sup>⦵</sup> is negative, Δ<em>G</em><sup>⦵</sup> is positive and the process is non-spontaneous. When <em>E</em><sup>⦵</sup> is zero, then Δ<em>G</em><sup>⦵</sup> is also equal to zero.</p></li><li><p>The current, the duration of electrolysis and the charge on the ion affect the amount of products formed at the electrodes during electrolysis.</p></li><li><p>Electroplating involves the coating of an object with a thin layer of a metal by electrolysis.</p><hr class="hidden"></li></ul></div></div></div></div><p><strong>Apply their knowledge to:</strong></p><div title="Page 105"><div><div><ul><li>Calculate cell potentials using standard electrode potentials for half-cells.</li><li>Use <em>E</em><sup>⦵</sup> values to predict whether a reaction is spontaneous or non-spontaneous.</li><li>Determine standard free-energy changes, Δ<em>G</em><sup>⦵</sup>, using standard electrode potentials.</li><li>Explain the products formed during the electrolysis of aqueous solutions.</li><li>Carry out laboratory experiments that could include single replacement reactions in aqueous solutions.</li><li>Determine the relative amounts of products formed during electrolytic processes.</li><li>Explain the process of electroplating.</li></ul></div></div></div></div></div></td><td style="width: 50%;" valign="top"><div class="yellowBg"><div><h4><strong>Clarification notes</strong></h4><div title="Page 105"><div><div><div>The theory of the electrolysis of aqueous solutions (e.g. sodium chloride, copper(II) sulfate and 'water' etc.) using both inert electrodes (platinum or graphite) and copper electrodes should be covered. The relevance of the <em>E</em><sup>⦵</sup> values, the nature of the electrode and the concentration of the electrolyte should be included in the explanations.</div><div><br>The equation Δ<em>G</em><sup>⦵</sup> = − <em>nFE</em><sup>⦵</sup> is given in Section 1 of the data booklet and the value of 96 500 C mol<sup>-1</sup> for Faraday's constant, <em>F</em>, is given in Section 2 of the data booklet.</div><div><br>Students should understand what is meant by the term <em>cells in series</em>.<hr class="hidden"></div><div></div><div><h4>International-mindedness</h4><div title="Page 104"><div><div><div><p>Many of the world’s energy problems can be alleviated by using electrochemical cells as energy sources. Some cells, e.g. super-efficient microbial fuel cells, MFCs, (also known as biological fuel cells) can also help to clean-up the environment. The international community and national governments have to decide what to prioritise when it comes to funding research projects.</p></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><hr class="hidden"><div class="box"><table align="left" border="0" cellpadding="10" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td style="width: 50%;" valign="top"><h2><span style=""><b><span style="font-weight: normal;"><strong>Teaching tips</strong></span></b></span></h2><p><span style=""><span style="font-weight: normal;">I</span></span>t would be nice to be able to teach about standard redox potentials through relevant practical work - unfortunately I have yet to come across a school with its own standard hydrogen electrode. In fact relating all the <em>E</em><sup>⦵</sup> values to the hydrogen electrode seems strange to students (and perhaps teachers as well) as it is not immediately obvious why a gas (which does not conduct electricity) should be chosen as a standard. It is further complicated because most of the diagrams show hydrogen bubbling out from under the surface of the acid which means that the pressure must be greater than one atmosphere.</p><p>What you can do though is build upon the core and construct an electrochemical series using Cu(s)/Cu<sup>2</sup><sup>+</sup>(aq) as the standard and then shift all the values by 0.34 V after talking about why hydrogen is used. What is important is to impress upon students that the actual electrode potential is not known and cannot be measured - the Electrochemical Series is simply a table of relative values.</p><p>Once they understand the concept they need plenty of practice at writing the relevant half-equations making sure that the half-cell with the more negative <em>E</em><sup>⦵ </sup>value is the one that gives up electrons. They can also see that a species can act either as an oxidizing or reducing agent depending upon the standard electrode potential of the other half-cell.</p><p>You will need to discuss the relationship between Δ<em>G</em> and <em>E</em><sup>⦵</sup><sup> </sup>and bring in the Faraday constant, <em>F</em>. Explain that when the cell reaches equilibrium then both Δ<em>G</em> and <em>E</em><sup>⦵</sup> will be zero. Although students are given the value of <em>F</em> they do not need to use it to solve electrolysis calculations as the syllabus clearly says that they only need to determine <strong>relative</strong> amounts but they will need to realise that the same quantity of electricity passes through two different electrolytic cells when they are connected in series.</p><p>The practical <a href="../18356/electrolytic-cells--1.html" title="New 2014 programme (First exams 2016) » Practical scheme of work » Other good practicals » Electrolytic cells ">Electrolytic cells</a> is well worth doing to reinforce the theory of electrolysis in solution. Students must realise that unlike a voltaic cell an electrolytic cell is a non-spontaneous process. Electricity needs to be put in to drive the reaction in the opposite direction to what happens in a voltaic cell. Too often when marking Paper 2 I see diagrams of electrolytic cells with voltmeters and salt-bridges and electrochemical cells powered by an external battery!</p><hr class="hidden"></td><td style="width: 50%;" valign="top"><h4><b><span style="font-weight: normal; "><strong>Study guide</strong></span></b></h4><p style="margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 1em;"><img alt="" src="../../../ib/chemistry/images/2014%20Basic%20information/New%20cover.jpg" style="width: 67px; height: 96px;"></p><p style="margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 1em;"></p><p style="margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 1em;"><b><span style="font-weight: normal;">Pages </span></b><span style="font-weight: normal;">74<b><span style="font-weight: normal;"> </span></b>- 76</span></p><hr class="hidden"><h2>Questions</h2><p>For ten 'quiz' multiple choice questions with the answers explained see <a href="../24742/mc-test-electrochemical-cells-ahl-1.html" title="Core & AHL » Teaching each topic & sub-topic » Topics 9 & 19 » Electrochemical cells (AHL) » MC test: Electrochemical cells (AHL)">MC test: Electrochemical cells (AHL)</a>.</p><p style="margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 1em;">For short-answer questions on voltaic cells which can be set as an assignment for a test, homework or given for self study together with model answers see <a href="../41098/electrochemical-cells-1-ahl-questions-1.html" title="Core & AHL » Teaching each topic & sub-topic » Topics 9 & 19 » Electrochemical cells (AHL) » Electrochemical cells (1) (AHL) questions">Electrochemical cells (1) (AHL) questions</a> and for a second set of short-answer questions on electrolytic cells see <a href="../41099/electrochemical-cells-2-ahl-questions-1.html" title="Core & AHL » Teaching each topic & sub-topic » Topics 9 & 19 » Electrochemical cells (AHL) » Electrochemical cells (2) (AHL) questions">Electrochemical cells (2) (AHL) questions</a>.</p><hr class="hidden"><h4><span style=""><b><span style="font-weight: normal;"><strong>Vocabulary list:</strong></span></b></span></h4><p>Standard electrode potential,<em> E</em><img class="ico" src="../../../img/icons/underground.png"><br>Standard hydrogen electrode, SHE<br>Cell potential<br>Electromotive force, EMF<br>Charge (coulombs) = current (amps) x time (s)<br>Electrolysis of 'water'<br>Electroplating</p><hr class="hidden"><h4><strong><strong>IM, TOK, 'Utilization' etc.</strong></strong></h4><p>See <a href="../18349/topics-9-19--1.html" title="New 2014 programme (First exams 2016) » Core & AHL » Incorporating IM, TOK, 'Utilization' etc. » Topics 9 & 19 ">separate page </a>which covers all of Topic 9 & 19.</p><hr class="hidden"><h2><span style=""><b><span style="font-weight: normal;"><strong>Practical work</strong></span></b></span></h2><p><img class="ico" src="../../../img/icons/lab-1.png"> <a href="../16640/voltaic-cells-1.html">Voltaic cells</a></p><p><a href="../18356/electrolytic-cells--1.html" target="_blank" title="Labs"><img class="ico" src="../../../img/icons/lab-1.png"> Electrolytic cells</a></p></td></tr></tbody></table></div><hr class="hidden"><div class="greenBg"><h2 id="header-13">Teaching slides</h2><p>Teachers may wish to share these slides with students for learning or for reviewing key concepts.</p><div id="myCarousel-14" class="carousel slide" data-id="311"><!-- Carousel items --><div class="carousel-inner"><div class="active item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-311/1911.png" rel="gallery-311" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/1911.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Electrochemical cells (AHL): </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-311/19121.png" rel="gallery-311" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/19121.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Electrochemical cells (AHL): </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-311/1913.png" rel="gallery-311" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/1913.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Electrochemical cells (AHL): </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-311/1914.png" rel="gallery-311" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/1914.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Electrochemical cells (AHL): </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-311/1915.png" rel="gallery-311" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/1915.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Electrochemical cells (AHL): </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-311/1916.png" rel="gallery-311" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/1916.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Electrochemical cells (AHL): </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-311/1917.png" rel="gallery-311" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/1917.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Electrochemical cells (AHL): </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-311/slide-8.png" rel="gallery-311" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/slide-8.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Electrochemical cells (AHL): </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-311/slide-91.png" rel="gallery-311" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/slide-91.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Electrochemical cells (AHL): </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-311/19110.png" rel="gallery-311" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/19110.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Electrochemical cells (AHL): </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-311/19111.png" rel="gallery-311" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/19111.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Electrochemical cells (AHL): </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-311/19112.png" rel="gallery-311" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/19112.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Electrochemical cells (AHL): </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-311/19113.png" rel="gallery-311" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/19113.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Electrochemical cells (AHL): </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-311/9114.png" rel="gallery-311" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/9114.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Electrochemical cells (AHL): </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-311/19115.png" rel="gallery-311" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/19115.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Electrochemical cells (AHL): </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-311/19116.png" rel="gallery-311" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/19116.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Electrochemical cells (AHL): </p></div></div></div><!-- Carousel nav --><a class="carousel-control left" href="#myCarousel-14" data-slide="prev">‹</a><a class="carousel-control right" href="#myCarousel-14" data-slide="next">›</a><div class="tib-indicators"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 10px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/1911-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/19121-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/1913-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/1914-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/1915-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/1916-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/1917-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/slide-8-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/slide-91-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/19110-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/19111-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/19112-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/19113-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/9114-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/19115-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-311/19116-thumb128.jpg"></div></div><p> </p></div><hr class="hidden"><div class="blueBg"><h2><strong>Other resources</strong></h2><p><strong>1. </strong>A useful video describing the standard hydrogen electrode. Note however that although written on the screen there is no verbal inclusion of the need for the temperature to be 25 <sup>o</sup>C (298 K) for standard conditions. Also the hydrogen gas shown must actually be slightly higher than the required one atmosphere pressure as it bubbles out from below the surface of the solution.</p><p style="text-align: center;"><iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="280" src="//www.youtube.com/embed/qKSNzmggCeg?rel=0" width="360"></iframe></p><p style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://youtu.be/qKSNzmggCeg" target="_blank" title="Videos"><img class="ico" src="../../../img/icons/video-1.png"><span class="anchor" id="video-1" name="video-1"> </span> Standard electrode potential</a></p><hr class="hidden"><p><strong>2. </strong>This video shows exactly how some people make the whole thing so unnecessarily complicated using cell conventions and left and right hands and negative EMF values that it is not surprising that students find the topic so impossibly difficult. Not recommended to show to students.</p><p style="text-align: center;"><iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="280" src="//www.youtube.com/embed/N3lG10So7TE?rel=0" width="360"></iframe></p><p style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://youtu.be/N3lG10So7TE" target="_blank" title="Videos"><img class="ico" src="../../../img/icons/video-1.png"><span class="anchor" id="video-2" name="video-2"> </span> Cell conventions etc.</a></p><hr class="hidden"><p><strong>3.</strong> A good video on the electrolysis of concentrated sodium chloride solution which explains it well.</p><p style="text-align: center;"><iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="280" src="//www.youtube.com/embed/58mFhu56-Hw?rel=0" width="360"></iframe></p><p style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://youtu.be/58mFhu56-Hw" target="_blank" title="Videos"><img class="ico" src="../../../img/icons/video-1.png"><span class="anchor" id="video-3" name="video-3"> </span> Electrolysis of NaCl(aq)</a></p><hr class="hidden"><p>4. The electrolysis of 'water' using dilute sulfuric acid and a Hofmann voltameter. It clearly show the volume relationship and the identity of the two gases.</p><p style="text-align: center;"><iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="280" src="//www.youtube.com/embed/OTEX38bQ-2w?rel=0" width="360"></iframe></p><p style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://youtu.be/OTEX38bQ-2w" target="_blank" title="Videos"><img class="ico" src="../../../img/icons/video-1.png"><span class="anchor" id="video-4" name="video-4"> </span> Electrolysis of 'water'</a></p><hr class="hidden"><p style="text-align: center;"></p></div></section></article><section id="media-extras"><div class="page-actions no-print navbar inline hidden-desktop"><div class="navbar-inner"><ul class="nav"><li><a class="presentation" href="#" onclick="return false;"><i class="fa fa-desktop"></i></a></li><li><a class="print-section-blog" href="#" onclick="return false;"><i class="fa fa-print"></i></a></li><li><a class="page-bookmarker" data-ticket="IB Docs (2) Team" data-pid="18401" href="#" onclick="return false;"><i class="fa fa-star"></i></a></li><li><a class="personal-notes" href="#" onclick="return false;"><i class="fa fa-file-text"></i></a></li><li><a class="" data-toggle="modal" href="#modal-feedback" onclick="return false;"><i class="fa fa-envelope-o"></i></a></li><li class="dropdown"><a class="dropdown-toggle" data-toggle="dropdown" data-target="#" href="#"><i class="fa fa-share-alt"></i></a><ul class="dropdown-menu" role="menu"><li><a class="" target="_blank" title="Share on Twitter" href="https://twitter.com/share?text=%22Electrochemical+cells+%28AHL%29+%22+-+via+%40InThinker+%23chemistry%0A&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thinkib.net%2Fchemistry%2Fpage%2F18401%2Felectrochemical-cells-ahl-"><i class="fa fa-twitter-square"></i><span>Twitter</span></a></li><li><a class="" target="_blank" title="Share on Facebook" href="https://www.facebook.com/sharer.php?u=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thinkib.net%2Fchemistry%2Fpage%2F18401%2Felectrochemical-cells-ahl-&t=Electrochemical+cells+(AHL)+"><i class="fa fa-facebook-square"></i><span>Facebook</span></a></li><li><a class="" href="http://www.linkedin.com/shareArticle?mini=true&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thinkib.net%2Fchemistry%2Fpage%2F18401%2Felectrochemical-cells-ahl-"><i class="fa fa-linkedin-square"></i><span>LinkedIn</span></a></li><li><a class="" href="https://plus.google.com/share?url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thinkib.net%2Fchemistry%2Fpage%2F18401%2Felectrochemical-cells-ahl-"><i class="fa fa-google-plus-square"></i><span>Google +</span></a></li><li><a class="" href="mailto:?subject=Electrochemical cells (AHL) &body=1. 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